Stefan Żeromski and Florian Znaniecki, perceived by many of their contemporaries as undisputed moral authorities, warned in the fi rst period of the existence of the Second Polish Republic against the danger of infl uence of Bolshevik ideology. They undertook issues of fundamental importance for the understanding of mutual relations and conditions between the socio-economic world, art, material prosperity, revolution and progress in the period after the First World War (1914–1918), when the power of the Bolsheviks had strengthened in Russia, and the Poles formed the foundations independent homeland. This text is an attempt to approximate the position of Żeromski and Znaniecki in this matter.
Both the growing number of dispersed generation plants and storage systems
and the new roles and functions on the demand side (e.g. demand side management) are
making the operation (monitoring and control) of electrical grids more complex, especially
in distribution. This paper demonstrates how to integrate phasor measurements so that
state estimation in a distribution grid profits optimally from the high accuracy of PMUs.
Different measurement configurations consisting of conventional and synchronous mea-
surement units, each with different fault tolerances for the quality of the calculated system
state achieved, are analyzed and compared. Weighted least squares (WLS) algorithms for
conventional, linear and hybrid state estimation provide the mathematical method used in
this paper. A case study of an 18-bus test grid with real measured PMU data from a 110 kV
distribution grid demonstrates the improving of the system’s state variable’s quality by
using synchrophasors. The increased requirements, which are the prerequisite for the use
of PMUs in the distribution grid, are identified by extensively analyzing the inaccuracy of
measurement and subsequently employed to weight the measured quantities.