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Abstract

The article presents a new technique for measuring paper deformation in unidirectional tensile tests, based on recording and analysis of a series of specimen images. The proposed technique differs from the DIC-based deformation measurement in that the cross-correlation of image data has been replaced with linear filtering. For this purpose, a regular grid of markers is printed on the sample. Filtering the image creates local maxima in the places where markers occur. The developed algorithm finds their location with sub-pixel accuracy. Printing a grid of markers on tested paper and use of reference objects visible in the same image as the paper sample, freed from the need to mechanically connect the camera and the universal testing machine and from the necessity to electronically synchronize their work. The obtained deformation distributions and Poisson’s ratios are in accordance with the literature data which confirms the correctness of the developed measurement technique.
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Bibliography

[1] Polish Committee for Standardization. (2010). Paper and cardboard – Determination of tensile properties – Part 2: Test at constant tensile speed (20 mm / min) (ISO Standard No. PN-EN ISO 1924-2). (in Polish)
[2] Laermann, K. H. (Eds.). (2000). Optical Methods in Experimental Solid Mechanics. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-2586-1
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[8] White, D. J., Take, W. A., & Bolton, M. D. (2003). Soil deformation measurement using particle image velocimetry (PIV) and photogrammetry. Geotechnique, 53(7), 619–631. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2003.53.7.619
[9] Take, W. A. (2015). Thirty-Sixth Canadian Geotechnical Colloquium: Advances in visualization of geotechnical processes through digital image correlation. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 52(9), 1199–1220. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2014-0080
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[11] Chivers, K. & Clocksin, W. (2000). Inspection of Surface Strain in Materials Using Optical Flow, In Mirmehdi, M. & Barry T., (Eds.). Proceedings of the British Machine Conference. BMVA Press. https://doi.org/10.5244/C.14.41
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[14] Jiao,W., Fang, Y.,&He, G. (2008). An integrated feature -based method for sub-pixel image matching. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, China, XXXVII, Part B1.
[15] Zwick Roell. Product Information videoXtens 2-120 HP. https://www.zwickroell.com
[16] Narita, G., Watanabe, Y., & Ishikawa, M. (2016). Dynamic projection mapping onto deforming nonrigid surface using deformable dot cluster marker. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, 23(3), 1235–1248. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2016.2592910
[17] Mishra, S. R., Mohapatra, S. R., Sudarsanan, N., Rajagopal, K., & Robinson, R. G. (2017). A simple image-based deformation measurement technique in tensile testing of geotextiles. Geosynthetics International, 24(3), 306–320. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgein.17.00003
[18] Duda, A., & Frese, U. (2018). Accurate Detection and Localization of Checkerboard Corners for Calibration. 29th British Machine Vision Conference (BMVC-29), United Kingdom. https://bmvc2018.org/contents/papers/0508.pdf
[19] Jones, A. R. (1968). An Experimental Investigation of the In-Plane Elastic Moduli of Paper. Tappi, 51(5), 203–209.
[20] Szewczyk, W. (2008). New methods of assessing the load capacity of multilayer laminates of paper and cardboard. Science Notebooks Lodz University of Technology, 1027. (in Polish).
[21] Cao, X., Bi, Z.,Wei, X.,&Xie,Y. (2012). Determination of Poisson’s Ratio of Kraft Paper Using Digital Image Correlation. In: Zhang T. (Eds.). Mechanical Engineering and Technology. Advances in Intelligent and Soft Computing (pp. 51-57), 125. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-27329-2_8
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Authors and Affiliations

Paweł Pełczyński
1
Włodzimierz Szewczyk
1
Maria Bieńkowska
1

  1. Centre of Papermaking and Printing, Lodz University of Technology, 90-924 Lodz, Wolczanska 223, Poland
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Abstract

Cooling is indispensable for maintaining the desired performance and reliability over a very huge variety of products like electronic devices, computer, automobiles, high power laser system etc. Apart from the heat load amplification and heat fluxes caused by many industrial products, cooling is one of the major technical challenges encountered by the industries like manufacturing sectors, transportation, microelectronics, etc. Normally water, ethylene glycol and oil are being used as the fluid to carry away the heat in these devices. The development of nanofluid generally shows a better heat transfer characteristics than the water. This research work summarizes the experimental study of the forced convective heat transfer and flow characteristics of a nanofluid consisting of water and 1% Al2O3(volume concentration) nanoparticle flowing in a parallel flow, counter flow and shell and tube heat exchanger under laminar flow conditions. The Al2O3 nanoparticles of about 50 nm diameter are used in this work. Three different mass flow rates have been selected and the experiments have been conducted and their results are reported. This result portrays that the overall heat transfer coefficient and dimensionless Nusselt number of nanofluid is slightly higher than that of the base liquid at same mass flow rate at same inlet temperature. From the experimental result it is clear that the overall heat transfer coefficient of the nanofluid increases with an increase in the mass flow rate. It shows that whenever mass flow rate increases, the overall heat transfer coefficient along with Nusselt number eventually increases irrespective of flow direction. It was also found that during the increase in mass flow rate LMTD value ultimately decreases irrespective of flow direction. However, shell and tube heat exchanger provides better heat transfer characteristics than parallel and counter flow heat exchanger due to multi pass flow of nanofluid. The overall heat transfer coefficient, Nusselt number and logarithmic mean temperature difference of the water and Al2O3/water nanofluid are also studied and the results are plotted graphically.

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Authors and Affiliations

R. Dharmalingam
K.K. Sivagnanaprabhu
J. Yogaraja
S. Gunasekaran
R. Mohan

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