What do biological powerhouses look like? How do they work? Why does generating a single “dose of energy” demand a highly complicated process? Why do seeds age? Answers to all these questions are to be found in one of the most complex cellular organelles: the mitochondrion.

What strategies do plants use in trying to disperse their seeds, so as to colonize distant areas? Is it more advantageous to have tiny seeds as light as a feather, or tough and heavy acorns?

Fieldexperiment with spring rape (Brassica napus var. oleifera f. annua) cultivars Star andLisonne was conductedin the years 1995–1999 at the vicinity of Olsztyn, Poland. The herbicides trifluralin (Triflurotox 250 EC), alachlor + trifluralin (Alatrif 380 EC), metazachlor (Butisan 400 SC) andclopyralid(Lontrel 300) were appliedin spring rape according to recommendations (Zalecenia 1993). The aim of this study was to estimate the effect of the herbicides on glucosinolates content in spring rape seeds. The obtainedresults revealedsignificant effect of meteorological conditions on glucosinolates content. The Star cv. was characterizedby higher level of these compounds in comparison with Lisonne cv. The adequate values were 15.96 μmol g^-1 of d.m. and 12.32 μmol g^-1 of d.m., respectively. It is evident on the base of the statistical analyses of the obtained results that herbicides modified glucosinolates content in seeds of both cultivars. The level of these compounds was increased as the effect of Triflurotox 250 EC use (data obtainedfrom three years investigations) and Alatrif 380 EC (four years) while Butisan 400 SC activity was unfavourable (four years).

In this study, two species belonging to the genus Allium and distributed in Turkey are investigated. A thick cuticle is observed on the epidermis of the scapes of the species. The epicuticular layer is not evident in Allium scorodoprasum ssp. rotundum (L.) Stearn. Secretory cavities have been formed in the pith region of the species. Vascular bundles are in the form of two rings, one above and one below the sclerenchymatic ring. The cross- section of the leaf of Allium brevicaule Boiss. & Balansa is circular, unlike A. scorodoprasum ssp. rotundum. In both species, the stomata are located lower than the epidermis cells. The seeds of A. brevicaule are smaller than in A. scorodoprasum ssp. rotundum and they are polygonal shaped. The testa cells of A. brevicaule seeds have scalariform and tuberculate ornamentation. A. scorodoprasum seeds have reticulate sculpture testa. The species have sulcate pollen types. The pollen form of A. brevicaule is perprolate, and that of A. scorodoprasum ssp. rotundum is subprolate. The apertures in both species are monosulcus. In A. brevicaule, the sulcus does not extend to the poles at the proximal end. Therefore, the differences in the scape and leaf anatomy, as well as in palynology and micromorphology, can be used to distinguish Allium species.

The article presents an experimental-theoretical analysis of fluidised-bed drying of poppy seeds directed on minimisation of energy. The analysis was performed for a complete drying node incorporating a heat exchanger and a fan. Two complementary factors were used in the exergetic evaluation: exergy efficiency and unit consumption of exergy. An analysis of drying in stationary bed was carried out for comparison purposes. Results of the exergetic analysis can become a basis for innovative works focused on decreasing energy consumption of a technological node being analysed, e.g. by the use of recirculation of fluidising-drying medium.

Currently, Prosopis laevigata (mesquite) has been affected by the Bruchinae coleoptera pest, whic feeds on its seed and causes significant losses in production and grain storage. In the Hñähñu community El Alberto (Ixmiquilpan, Hidalgo, Mexico), the use of aqueous extracts from garlic and nettle as botanical insecticides against different pests in agricultural fields is a known practice. Herein, we assess the efficacy of the method known by locals in the protection of mesquite seeds. Two tests were conducted: 1) Insecticidal effect on adult bruchins, and 2) Seed preservation test from Bruchinae infestation, with a germination test in seeds exposed to the treatments. There are probable insecticidal effects on immature stages of Bruchinae since there were no mortality effects on their adults during the first test. Mortality on adults in the second test was 75.6% with garlic and 50% with nettle. Nettle extract had more efficacy in seed protection with an infestation rate of 4%, whereas 27.5% of the seeds exposed to garlic extract were infested. Seed germination rate was 2.38% with nettle extract, and 1.19% with garlic extract. The method known by local inhabitants requires modifications to increase its efficacy and possible use in Integrated Pest Management in the future.

Salinity is one of the most significant abiotic stress factors influencing crop production, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. Plants’ response to salinity stress depends on the cultivated genotype. A pot experiment was conducted to study the impact of two concentrations of sodium chloride (4 and 6 dS∙m–1) on some physiological and production traits of 58 chickpea genotypes. A genetic variation in the response of the investigated chickpea genotypes for NaCl-induced salinity stress was noted. Studied morphophysiological traits and yield components were affected under salt stress in all genotypes tested. Plant height was observed to have the lowest rate of reduction (32%, 48%) at 4 and 6 dS∙m ^–1, respectively. Leaf stomatal conductance decreased as salinity increased. Salinity stress conditions affected all studied yield components, but there was a genetic variation in the response of the studied genotypes. Under no stress conditions and compared to the other genotypes, the number of pods was significantly higher in BG362 genotype. The seed number was significantly higher in ILC9076 genotype. The 100 seed weight was significantly higher in the genotype ILC2664. The mean seed yield was significantly higher in ILC9354 and the harvest index was significantly higher in ILC8617. In general, salinity stress caused the reduction of all parameters. We assume that the assessment of tolerance of chickpea ( Cicer arietinum L.) genotypes to salinity stress should be based on a complex of morpho-physiological traits and analysis of yield complement.

Fructification of Stratiotes aloides L. is very rarely recorded at present. In general, there are only one sex representatives in each lake basin, which simply makes generative reproduction difficult. The subfossil seeds of Stratiotes aloides have been found in five localities of biogenic accumulation in northern and central Poland.

One of the most serious seed-borne diseases of flax is anthracnose or seedling blight caused by Colletotrichum lini (West.) Toch. This disease affects flax seedlings, leaves, stems, and fruit bags. It causes reductions in linseed germination power, stand density, stem and linseed yield, fibre output and quality. During 1999-2001 experiments were carried out at the Lithuanian Institute ofAgriculture Upyte Experimental Station to test the efficacy of seven fungicides used for seed dressing against flax anthracnose and other seedborne diseases. Experimental findings indicated that 19.0% to 34.0% of flax seeds were annually infected with C. lini (West.) Toch. causing flax anthracnose. As the disease can spread through the soil, on control plots sown with untreated with fungicides seeds 33.0% to 79.5% of seedlings showed symptoms of anthracnose. Seed treatment with Sportak 45 EC used at the dose 0.8 l f1 and Maxim Star 025 FS used at the dose 1.51 t-1 gave the best control of seedling blight causal agents. Their biological efficacy was as follows: against seed anthracnose 97.3% and 96.3%, at seedling stage, 76.5% and 76.3%, at 'fir-tree' stage - 67.8% and 60.4%. Biological efficacy of the other seed treaters was lower. The highest straw yield increases resulted from seed treatment with the Maxim Star 025 FS and Sportak 45 EC - 0.5 and 0.3 t ha" or 11.0% and 6.2%, respectively. The effect of fungicides used for seed treatment on linseed yield was similar. Maxim Star 025 FS increased the yield on average by 22.1%, and Sportak 45 EC and Premis 25 FS by 13. 7% and 13.3%. The other fungicides, except for Raxil 2 WS and Rovral FLO, also had a positive effect on flax straw and linseed yield, however, in all experimental years the increases were not higher than the least significant difference.

Investigations on the occurrence of Barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV, Hordeivirus) in Poland were performed by testing seeds of 22 barley cultivars. BSMV was detected in seeds of winter barley cv. Tiffany and of spring barley cvs. Scarlett and Stratu s. The virus presence was revealed by ELISA test and then confirm ed by electron microscopy. Preliminary data on the rate of seed transmission of BSMV in cvs. Scarlett and Stratus are presented.

Fusarium avenaceum, F. oxysporum, Alternaria alternata, Botrytis cinerea, Rhizoctonia solani, Mucor sp., Aspergillus niger, Penicillium spp. were the most often isolated species from fiber seeds. The antagonistic action of Trichoderma lignorum T 13–82 in relation to seed contaminants was evaluated. The use of Trichodermin-BL, based on that antagonist, applied as pre-sowing seed treatment and on growing plants decrease diseases incidence. The application of Trichodermin-BL improved a set of biometrical and physiological parameters during crop vegetation, increased the yield and raised flax fiber quality.

The paper presents the results of the research whose aim was to establish the sensitivity degree of Betu/a pendula pollen, seeds and seedlings in the adverse conditions of the zinc-lead waste from "Silesia" Steelworks in Katowice. The pollen and the seeds of the birch (from the dump and unpolluted region - Mirów) were tested by taking into condition: pollen capacity and seeds germination capacity. For the pot cultures metallurgical wastes and the soil from Mirów were placed in plastic boxes. For each kind of seeds a different soil variant was applied: Dump soil, Soil from Mirów, Garden soil (control group), 8 seeds were put into each box (total number of seeds for each variant was 96). The seeds of Betu/a pendula growing on smelter waste dumps had been collected in the vicinity of the dumps. The results of the experiment showed that the soil pollution has a significant impact on generative phase of Betu/a pendula.

An effective procedure for producing transformed Centaurium erythraea plants from synthetic seeds is described. Explants were encapsulated in 3% sodium alginate with 3% sucrose. Encapsulated hairy roots were cultured on half-strength Murashige and Skoog (1/2 MS) or Woody Plant (WPM) agar-solidified regeneration media supplemented with 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) or without the cytokinin. The use of WPM with 0.5 mg/L of BAP gave the best shoot formation frequency (86%) and mean number of shoots (15) per root segment. Shoots rooted with 97% frequency on 1/2 MS without growth regulators. Encapsulated shoot buds were cultured on onethird- strength MS agar medium (1/3 MS) supplemented with indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) (0.05 mg/L). The plantlet conversion frequency was 32%. The encapsulated hairy roots and shoot buds were stored for 4, 6 or 14 weeks at 4°C. Synthetic seeds encapsulated with 3% sodium alginate with 3% sucrose stored at 4°C remained viable for 6 weeks but their developmental parameters significantly decreased. Adding nutrient medium and growth regulator to the alginate matrix increased plantlet recovery from both non-stored and stored synthetic seeds: synthetic seeds retained their viability and ability to form plantlets even after 14 weeks of storage. Regenerated transformed plantlets of C. erythraea were acclimatized in the greenhouse.

The current research aimed to use non traditional methods to control some stored grain insects. The effects of 180 millitesla (mT) magnetic field (MF) for six different exposure periods (3 min, 30 min, 1 h, 12 h, 24 h and 48 h) on mortality (%) of two stored grain insects, Tribolium casteneum adults and Trogoderma granarium larvae, reduction in F1-progeny (%), seeds germination (%) and seed components (%) after 8 months storage period were studied under laboratory conditions. According to results, the mortality (%) of tested insects increased with increasing of MF time exposure. Trogoderma granarium was more resistant than T. casteneum in which mortality reached 56 and 75%, respectively 14 days after from exposure period. Without any negative effect on seeds germination (%) the MF was very effective in protecting stored wheat from insect infestation up to 8 months compared to non-magnetic seeds which became infested after 3 months of storage. Furthermore, the germination (%) was accelerated by 6 h compared to non-magnetic seeds. The MF level caused a slight increase in the percent of total carbohydrate, crude protein and ash while slightly decrease the percent of moisture, total fats and crude fiber.

Appropriate agrotechnical measures make it possible to optimise plant cultivation and obtain yields of the highest quality with an appropriate economic production index. The aim of the study was to evaluate different sowing density and row spacing on the morphological and mechanical properties of white lupine ( Lupinus albus L.) seeds. The field experiment was conducted at the Experimental Station for Variety Evaluation in Przecław (50°11'25.2" N, 21°28'55.0" E). The experiment was established at two row spacings (15 cm and 30 cm) and three sowing densities (60, 75, 90 plants per m ²). Mechanical parameters evaluated included destructive force F_D (N), relative deformation D_R (%) and destructive energy E_D (mJ). Seed morphological properties such as weight, length and width were also assessed. Sphericity was also calculated. In the present study, improvements in the mechanical properties of the seeds were obtained by increasing the plant density per unit area of the experiment. In the case of morphological characteristics, only the weight of the analysed lupine seeds changed significantly as a result of row spacing. On the other hand, sowing density did not significantly affect morphological traits. of white lupine seeds. Apart from the spacing and sowing density of plants, the weather conditions in particular years of research were an important factor determining the properties of seeds. Determining the optimum sowing density and row spacing in the field contributes to the optimisation of the production process. Quasi-static mechanical tests are often used to obtain reasonable data on the physical properties of plant materials.

Rhizoctonia solani was isolated from 91 % of alder and birch seedlings with stem rot symptoms and 2-3% of seeds. Sowing of seeds to substratum infested with R. solani resulted in pre-and postemergence damping off. On leaves and stem parts of alder and birch, inoculated with 3 isolates of R. solani, necrosis spread from 0.22 to 0.52 mm/hr.

In the Institute of Plant Protection Branch in Sośnicowice an investigation was performed on establishing novel methods for testing biological activity of seed dressings against snow mould (Microdochiwn nivale). Seeds of winter wheat used for the experiments in artificial conditions were disinfected in sodium hypochlorite, subsequently infected with the pathogen, and treated with seed dressing fungicides (Baytan Universal 19.5 WS, Zaprawa Funaben T, Maxim 025 FS, Raxil Extra 515 FS and Vitavax 200 FS). In laboratory tests inoculation with conidial suspension was applied, and in climatic chamber experiments either conidial suspension or inoculum grown on sand-cornmeal medium was used. The field experiment with the same seed dressings was carried out on naturally infested plots, and the disease developed under snow cover lasting for 58 days. Two novel climatic chamber methods (Z and PK) proved to be suitable for testing biological activity of seed dressing fungicides against snow mould (M nivale) as correlation coefficients with field results at P=0.05 were 0.9760 and 0.9453. Method Z was recognised as more suitable. Differences between seed dressings were statistically insignificant. The laboratory method was recognised as useful for controlling the pathogen (M. niva!e), but its usefulness for controlling the disease (snow mould) may not be sufficient under a range of different winter conditions.

The aim of the studies was to evaluate the influence of sowing rate, foliar fertilization (Basfoliar fertilizer 6-12-6) and chemical composition on the mechanical properties of narrow- leaved lupine seeds of cultivars Bojar and Regent. Single seeds were burdened in the direction perpendicular to the parting plane of cotyledons with constant speed 10 mm∙min-1. The crop year and cultivar have significantly differentiated the value of all the analyzed strength parameters of narrow-leaved lupine seeds. The seeds of cultivar Bojar had significantly higher values of all the strength parameters. The designated strength parameters of lupine seeds were negatively correlated with ash content, fiber and protein except for the destructive force. They were also positively correlated with the fat content.

We used germination tests to assess the frequency of polyembryony in 9 asparagus cultivars with a high propensity to produce double embryos with different ploidy levels: Alpha, Andreas, Boonlim, Cipres, Eposs, Helios, Limbras, Ravel and Sartaguda. Twin embryos inside a single seed were found in 3 cultivars: Eposs 2n, Ravel 2n and Sartaguda 2n, at 0.60% frequency (15 seeds with twin embryos out of 2500 seeds). Of 30 obtained seedlings, 14 were separated diploid-diploid twins, 6 were conjoined diploid pairs, 8 were separated diploid-haploid and 2 were diploid-haploid pairs conjoined in the hypocotyl region. Some embryos showed unilateral dominance of one embryo (size and shape). The haploid status of the smallest embryo was confirmed by chromosome number (n=x=10) and flow cytometry (nuclear C DNA amount 1.95 pg). The haploid obtained in this manner possessed enough vegetative vigor to undergo chromosome doubling.

Shoot tips excised from shoot culture of Salvia officinalis were encapsulated in 2% or 3% (w/v) sodium alginate and exposed to 50 mM calcium chloride for complexation. Immediately or after 6, 12 or 24 weeks of storage at 4°C, the synthetic seeds were cultured for 6 weeks on half-strength MS medium supplemented with indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) (0.1 mg/l) and solidified with 0.7% agar. The frequency of shoot and root emergence from encapsulated shoot tips was affected by the concentrations of sodium alginate and additives in the gel matrix (sucrose, gibberellic acid, MS nutrient medium) as well as duration of storage. The frequency of shoot and root induction of non-stored synthetic seeds was highest with shoot tips encapsulated with 2% sodium alginate containing 1.5% sucrose and 0.5 mg/l gibberellic acid (GA3). Shoot tips maintained their viability and ability to develop shoots even after 24 weeks of storage when they were encapsulated in 3% alginate with 1/3 MS medium, sucrose (1.5%) and GA3 (0.25 mg/l). Root formation tended to decrease with storage time. Overall, 90% of the plantlets derived from stored and non-stored synthetic seeds survived in the greenhouse and grew to phenotypically normal plants. This procedure can enable the use of synthetic seed technology for germplasm conservation of S. officinalis, a plant species of high medical and commercial value.

The embryology of three polar flowering plants of the family Caryophyllaceae was studied using the methods and techniques of the light, normal and fluorescence microscopes, and the electron microscopes, scanning and transmission. The analyzed species were Colobanthus quitensis of West Antarctic (King George Island, South Shetlands Islands) as well as Cerastium alpinum and Silene involucrata of the Arctic (Spitsbergen, Svalbard). In all evaluated species, flowering responses were adapted to the short Arctic and Australian summer, and adaptations to autogamy and anemogamy were also observed. The microsporangia of the analyzed plants produced small numbers of microspore mother cells that were differentiated into a dozen or dozens of trinucleate pollen grains. The majority of mature pollen grains remained inside microsporangia and germinated in the thecae. The monosporous Polygonum type (the most common type in angiosperms) of embryo sac development was observed in the studied species. The egg apparatus had an egg cell and two synergids with typical polarization. A well-developed filiform apparatus was differentiated in the micropylar end of the synergids. In mature diaspores of the analyzed plants of the family Caryophyllaceae, a large and peripherally located embryo was, in most part, adjacent to perisperm cells filled with reserve substances, whereas the radicle was surrounded by micropylar endosperm composed of a single layer of cells with thick, intensely stained cytoplasm, organelles and reserve substances. The testae of the analyzed plants were characterized by species-specific primary and secondary sculpture, and they contained large amounts of osmophilic material with varied density. Seeds of C. quitensis, C. alpinum and S. involucrata are very small, light and compact shaped.

Pantoea species (Pantoea spp.) is a diverse group of Gram-negative bacteria in the Enterobacteriaceae family that leads to devastating diseases in rice plants, thus affecting significant economic losses of rice production worldwide. Most critical rice diseases such as grain discoloration, bacterial leaf blight, stem necrosis and inhibition of seed germination have been reported to be caused by this pathogen. To date, 20 Pantoea spp. have been identified and recognized as having similar phenotypic and diverse characteristics. Detection via phenotypic and molecular-based approaches, for example the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and multiplex PCR give us a better understanding of the diversity of Pantoea genus and helps to improve effective disease control strategies against this emergent bacterial pathogen of rice. In this review, we focused on the significance of rice diseases caused by Pantoea spp. and insights on the taxonomy and characteristics of this destructive pathogen via phenotypic and molecular identification.