The dynamics of economic development determines the need to develop technologies for waste recycling especially the acquisition of condensed fuels for the needs of the local diversification of energy sources. In a short time, Poland will probably lack its own produced electricity. To apply the process of diversification of energy sources, by developing methods of generating energy from waste, it becomes crucial to protect the environment. The use of cogeneration technology based on fuels derived from waste, in particular concentrated oil and gas fuels, is becoming more common and provides the basis for securing the energy supply in the preferred diversification process. Plastic waste processing in the controlled depolymerization process, which is the reverse of the polymerization process for hydrocarbon recovery – uses petroleum derivatives its production. At present, the greatest interest arises in the material recovery of plastics and rubber in the process of anaerobic thermal decomposition (thermolysis/pyrolysis), which is used on an industrial scale and consists in the degradation of polymer bonds into low molecular weight. The imperative of a modern economy is to obtain energy from fuels from waste treatment, including hazardous waste, preferably in the cogeneration process. The fuel obtained from waste may be used to obtain thermal or electric energy in order to diversify energy sources. The article presents innovative Polish technologies of obtaining fuel in processes of anaerobic thermal decomposition mainly of elastomeric and polymeric waste (including hazardous ones) for direct application in power generators of various power.

The article discusses issues related to the generation, use, and transboundary movement of waste labeled with the code 191210 according to the waste catalogue regardless of its origin (municipal, industrial or mixed). Data contained in voivodship reports related to waste management and information about transboundary shipments shared by the Chief Inspectorate of Environmental Protection were also used in the article. The imbalance in the amount of produced and energetically used alternative fuels in Poland in the years 2015 to 2017 has been confirmed. This affects the economy of the waste management sector involved in the production of alternative fuels. The oversupply causes the prices of alternative fuels to fall and increases the need for subsidies in the case of the recovery or disposal of alternative fuels of lower quality. In the near future one should expect a stabilization of the supply of combustible waste to the cement industry, which is now beginning to achieve its technological potential; this is due to a high degree of replacement of fossil fuels. One should also expect an increase in the demand for alternative fuels from the commercial power sector and heating sector. It has been shown that much more alternative fuel is imported than exported from Poland. The amount of imported alternative fuel in the market is relatively low compared to the amount of fuel produced in the country. This oversupply affects, although not significantly, the possibility of using domestic waste for energy recovery. The export of the alternative fuel produced in the country is a favorable phenomenon when there is no possibility of sale on the domestic market. It seems rational, especially in the case of exports from installations producing fuels in border provinces.

At present, electromobility is a very dynamically developing segment and at the same time has many unknowns that enterprises that want to develop this area in their structures have to face. This article aims is to show the difficulties of electromobility development from the perspective of Polish energy groups which are closely related to this area, especially considering the obligations imposed on energy companies by the legislator. The electrification of transport has become a reality and in order to use its potential to develop new services or implement innovations and new technologies, it is necessary to identify development barriers and prepare a response plan. The authors of the article decided to show the formal and legal implications for the development of electromobility in Poland in first order, and then examine the development strategies of Polish energy groups in terms of electromobility and indicate explored areas related to it. The next section focuses on identifying the main barriers to the implementation of business models, classifying them according to the following factors: economic, operational, technical, social and legal. This presentation of the problem allows for an in-depth recognition of the issue and realizing that in order to achieve the goals set by the Legislator, close cooperation of all stakeholders is necessary both at the national and local level, while engaging energy groups, financial companies, electric vehicle manufacturers, and above all local government units in these activities.

The cement industry has been using waste as a raw material for many years. Waste is also used as alternative fuel. Cement plants are an important element of the waste management system and fit the idea of a circular economy. When waste is recovered in the cement production process, direct and indirect CO ₂ emissions are partially avoided. This article discusses the cement industry in Poland. The current situation in terms of the use of alternative fuels and raw materials in Poland, the different types of waste and the amount of waste used is discussed. The article discusses changes in the amount of waste (the increase in the amount of waste used as raw materials from the year 2006 to the year 2019) and the types of waste recovered in the cement production process and the possibility of closing material cycles on the plant scale (recycling to the primary process – cement kiln dust) and industry (using waste from other industries: metallurgy – granulated blast furnace slag, iron bearings; energy production – fly ash, reagypsum/phosphogypsum, fluidized bed combustion fly ash, and fluidized bed combustion bottom ash; wastewater treatment plants – sewage sludge, etc.). The analysis shows that the role of cement plants in waste management and the circular economy in Poland is important. Industrial waste from metallurgy, power plants, heat and power plants, wastewater treatment plants, and municipal waste is used as the raw material for the cement industry, leading to an industrial symbiosis.

The alternative waste fuels have a significant share in the fuel mix of the cement industry in Poland. The conditions inside cement kilns are favorable enough for environmentally-friendly use of waste fuels. In the article, the authors discuss the current situation concerning the use of alternative fuels in Poland, from difficult beginning in the 1990s to the present time, different kinds of fuels, and the amounts of used fuels. The use of fuels in Poland is presented against the global and EU consumption (including Central European countries and companies). The increased use of waste-derived fuels, from the level of about 1% at the end of the 1990s to the present level of about 70%, allowed for the limitation of waste storage, including avoidance of greenhouse gas emissions and consumption of conventional energy sources; those effects also contributed to the implementation of the sustainable development and circular economy conceptions. The experiences of the cement plants worldwide prove that the use of waste fuels is ecological and economical. The examples showed in the article confirm that cement plants are greatly interested in using waste fuels from waste, as they invest in the infrastructure allowing to store bigger amounts of waste and dose them more efficiently. Thus, the cement industry has become an important element of the country’s energy economy and waste management system.

This article presents the results of an assessment of the potential for the use of CNG in Poland as a fuel for passenger cars powered by an internal combustion engine fuelled by petrol or diesel. The basis for assessing the potential was an analysis of the economic efficiency of converting a passenger car fuelled by petrol or diesel to a dual-fuel vehicle by installing a CNG system. On the basis of available literature data, the vehicle structure was characterised using the following criteria: vehicle age, engine capacity, car-segment, type of fuel used and kerb weight. The average fuel consumption (petrol or diesel) of the vehicle before conversion was determined on the basis of specially developed statistical models. The conversion and operating costs of a vehicle fuelled with conventional fuel and with CNG (after vehicle conversion) were estimated on the basis of a stochastic simulation model using probability density distributions of vehicle parameters and the Monte Carlo method. The vehicle parameters were estimated so that the obtained set of vehicles reflected the actual structure of passenger cars in Poland. The estimated costs of vehicle conversion (purchase and installation of a CNG system) and its subsequent operating costs made it possible to assess the economic efficiency of the car conversion process. The potential use of CNG as a fuel for combustion cars was estimated by comparing the operating costs of a vehicle before conversion and the operating costs of a vehicle after conversion, taking into account the costs of conversion. Analogous calculations were carried out for the conversion of a vehicle to run on LPG, i.e. the most important competitor to CNG.

The article analyzes the risk factors related to the energy use of alternative fuels from waste. The essence of risk and its impact on economic activity in the area of waste management were discussed. Then, a risk assessment, on the example of waste fractions used for the production of alternative fuel, was carried out. In addition, the benefits for the society and the environment from the processing of alternative fuels for energy purposes, including, among others: reducing the cost of waste disposal, limiting the negative impact on water, soil and air, reducing the amount of waste deposited, acquisition of land; reduction of the greenhouse effect, facilitating the recycling of other fractions, recovery of electricity and heat, and saving conventional energy carriers, were determined. The analysis of risk factors is carried out separately for plants processing waste for alternative fuel production and plants producing energy from this type of fuel. Waste processing plants should pay attention to investment, market (price, interest rate, and currency), business climate, political, and legal risks, as well as weather, seasonal, logistic, technological, and loss of profitability or bankruptcy risks. Similar risks are observed in the case of energy companies, as they operate in the same external environment. Moreover, internal risks may be similar; however, the specific nature of the operation of each enterprise should be taken into account. Energy companies should pay particular attention to the various types of costs that may threaten the stability of operation, especially in the case of regulated energy prices. The risk associated with the inadequate quality of the supplied and stored fuels is important. This risk may disrupt the technological process and reduce the plant’s operational efficiency. Heating plants and combined heat and power plants should also not underestimate the non-catastrophic weather risk, which may lead to a decrease in heat demand and a reduction in business revenues. A comprehensive approach to risk should protect enterprises against possible losses due to various types of threats, including both external and internal threats.

Results of fly ashes from combustion of hard coal and co-combustion of alternative fuel (SRF) with coal in the stoker boiler WR-25 type studies have been shown. Samples of fly ashes were acquired during industrial combustion tests of hard coal and blend of coal with 10% SRF. The scope of comparative research included: chemical composition, contents of combustible parts and trace elements and also of microscopic analysis. The specific surface area SBET was established and tests of water extract were conducted. Chemical composition of mineral substance of both studied ashes is similar. Main ingredients are: SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and CaO. Fly ash from co-combustion of SRF with coal in a stoker boiler is characterized by high contents of combustible parts (on 30% level), higher than ash from hard coal combustion. Both tested ashes are characterized by specifi c surface area SBET on the level of 8–9 m2/g. In porous structure mesopores are dominant (>60%), and their volume is higher for fly ash from co-combustion of SRF with coal. Fly ash from co-combustion of waste is characterized by high contents of heavy metals. Nevertheless these metals and also other pollutants do not show leachability exceeding acceptable values for wastes different than hazardous. The microscopic structure of fly ashes from combustion of hard coal and co-combustion of alternative fuel studies showed crucial differences, especially in reference to organic material. Presented research results have shown that fly ash from co-combustion of SRF with coal in a stoker boiler can obtain the status of non-hazardous waste.

The article describes the results of combustion of a mixture of PCOME (purified cooking oil esters) and bioethanol in the compression ignition Perkins 1104C-44 engine. The engine was prepared for use with the classic type of fuel – diesel oil, not biofuels. That is why bioethanol was added to ester in tests so that the basic physicochemical properties of the obtained mixture were as close as possible to diesel fuel. Thanks to this, the use of such fuel in the future would not require reworking or adjusting the settings of selected elements of the engine power supply system. During this case study, the engine performance and heat release rate were analyzed. For comparison, tests were carried out while powering the engine with ester fuel, 10 and 20 per cent mixtures of bioethanol and PCOME. The speed and load characteristics for each fuel were determined. This article presents selected characteristics where the biggest differences were noticed.