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Abstract

The observation of trends in the demand for minerals is of fundamental importance in the long- -term assessment of prospects for economic development in Poland.
From among 148 minerals analyzed, 42 minerals are indicated as key minerals for the country’s economy, of which 22 were recognized as deficit minerals. These minerals have been the subject of this paper.
For each of these minerals the forecasts of demand by the years 2030, 2040 and 2050 have been made taking the current trends in domestic economy and premises for the development of industries that are main users of these minerals into account. The most promising prospects for growth of domestic demand – with at least a two-fold increase by 2050 – have been determined for manganese dioxide, metallic: magnesium, nickel, silicon, as well as talc and steatite, while an increase by at least 50% have been anticipated for metallic aluminum, tin, metallic manganese, and elemental phosphorus. For natural gas and crude oil growing tendencies have also been predicted, but only by 2030. On the other hand, the most probable decline in domestic demand by 2050 may be foreseen for iron ores and concentrates, bauxite, metallic tungsten, magnesite and magnesia, as well as for crude oil and natural gas, especially after 2040.
It seems inevitable that the deficit in the foreign trade of minerals will continue to deepen in the coming years. By 2030 this will mainly result from the growing importation of crude oil and natural gas, but beyond – by 2050 – further deepening in the trade deficit will be related to the growing importation of many metals as well as of some industrial minerals. After 2040, the negative trade balance can be mitigated by a possible decrease in foreign deliveries of hydrocarbons and iron ores and concentrates.
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Bibliography


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Galos, K. and Lewicka, E. 2016. Assessment of importance of non-energy mineral raw materials for the domestic economy in the years 2005–2014 (Ocena znaczenia surowców mineralnych nieenergetycznych dla gospodarki krajowej w latach 2005–2014). Zeszyty Naukowe IGSMiE PAN 92, pp. 7–36 (in Polish).

Galos et al. 2021 – Galos, K., Lewicka, E., Burkowicz, A., Guzik, K., Kot-Niewiadomska, A., Kamyk, J. and Szlugaj, J. 2021. Approach to identification and classification of the key, strategic and critical minerals important for the mineral security of Poland. Resources Policy 70, pp. 101900–101913.

Galos, K. and Smakowski, T. 2014. Preliminary proposal of methodology of identification of key minerals for the Polish economy (Wstępna propozycja metodyki identyfikacji surowców kluczowych dla polskiej gospodarki). Zeszyty Naukowe IGSMiE PAN 88, pp. 59–79 (in Polish).

Galos, K. and Szamałek, K. 2011. Assessment of the non-energy minerals security of Poland (Ocena bezpieczeństwa surowcowego Polski w zakresie surowców nieenergetycznych). Zeszyty Naukowe IGSMiE PAN 81, pp. 37–58 (in Polish).

Kulczycka et al. 2016 – Kulczycka, J., Pietrzyk-Sokulska, E., Koneczna, R., Galos, K. and Lewicka, E. 2016. Key minerals for the Polish economy (Surowce kluczowe dla polskiej gospodarki) Kraków: MERRI PAS, 164 pp. (in Polish).

Lewicka, E. and Burkowicz, A. 2018. Assessing current state of coverage the mineral raw materials demand of the domestic economy (Ocena obecnego stanu pokrycia potrzeb surowcowych gospodarki krajowej). Przegląd Geologiczny 66(3), pp. 144–152 (in Polish).

Lewicka et al. 2021 – Lewicka, E., Guzik, K. and Galos, K. 2021. On the possibilities of critical raw materials production from the EU’s primary sources. Resources 10(5), pp. 50–71.

Ministry of Climate and Environment 2021. Mineral Policy of Poland. Project from 6 April 2021 (Polityka surowcowa państwa. Projekt z 6 kwietnia 2021 r.), Warszawa (in Polish).

Nieć et al. 2014 – Nieć, M., Galos, K. and Szamałek, K. 2014. Main challenges of mineral resources policy of Poland. Resources Policy 42, pp. 93–103.

Radwanek-Bąk, B. 2016. Designation of key raw materials for the Polish economy (Określenie surowców kluczowych dla polskiej gospodarki). Zeszyty Naukowe IGSMiE PAN 96, pp. 241–254 (in Polish).

Radwanek-Bąk et al. 2018 – Radwanek-Bąk, B., Galos, K. and Nieć, M. 2018. Key, strategic and critical minerals for the Polish economy (Surowce kluczowe, strategiczne i krytyczne dla polskiej gospodarki). Przegląd Geologiczny 66(3), pp. 153–159 (in Polish).

Smakowski et al. 2015 – Smakowski, T., Galos, K. and Lewicka, E. eds. 2015. Balance of the mineral economy of Poland and the world 2013 (Bilans gospodarki surowcami mineralnymi Polski i świata 2013). Warszawa: PIG-PIB, 1169 pp. (in Polish).

Statistics Poland (GUS). Statistics of the production and foreign trade (as well as selected data on consumption) of mineral raw materials in Poland in the years 2000–2018.

Szuflicki et al. 2021 – Szuflicki, M., Malon, A. and Tymiński, M. eds. 2021. Balance of mineral raw materials deposits in Poland as of 31 XII 2020 (Bilans zasobów złóż kopalin w Polsce wg stanu na 31 XII 2020 r.). Warszawa: PIG-PIB, 508 pp. (in Polish).
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Authors and Affiliations

Krzysztof Galos
1
ORCID: ORCID
Ewa Danuta Lewicka
1
ORCID: ORCID
Jarosław Kamyk
1
ORCID: ORCID
Jarosław Szlugaj
1
ORCID: ORCID
Hubert Czerw
1
ORCID: ORCID
Anna Burkowicz
1
ORCID: ORCID
Alicja Kot-Niewiadomska
1
ORCID: ORCID
Katarzyna Guzik
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
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Abstract

The raw material economy determines energy security for individual countries in the world. Coal is one of the most important energy carriers for electricity production and heat generation. World market trends of fossil raw materials such as hard coal and lignite were presented. In the European Union a significant decrease in coal and lignite consumption has been observed in recent years. This situation is primarily related to the accelerating decarbonisation policy and support of renewable energy sources, which are considered to be environmentally friendly. The pandemic occurring in recent years has also played an important role in shaping the raw materials market. The author shows the possibilities and directions in which the coal economy has prospects for development and expansion. The amount of the world’s coal resources is presented, as well as the size of the global consumption of the raw material in the 2000–2011 years, specifying in China, India, Asia, the USA and the countries of the European Union. The structure of the coal economy is presented in the light of the policies and laws enacted by the European Union Comission, in particular in Poland, Germany and France. The appearance of the hard coal sector and lignite sector in Poland is described in detail. The size of resources was given in terms of coal classification. The presented data were based on a range of information and reports from world organizations such as the International Energy Agency or British Petroleum.
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Bibliography


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PEP2040 – Energy Policy of Poland until 2040 – strategy of fuel and energy sector development (Polityka energetyczna Polski do 2040 r.). Warszawa: Ministerstwo Energii, 2021 (in Polish).

Pepłowska et al. 2017 – Pepłowska, M., Gawlik, L. and Kryzia, D. 2017. Statistical analysis of the relationship between the economic condition of mining supporting companies and the condition of the hard coal mining industry (Analiza statystyczna zależności finansów przedsiębiorstw okołogórniczych od kondycji branży górnictwa węgla kamiennego). Przegląd Górniczy 73(11), pp. 15–22 (in Polish).

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Ratajczak, T. and Hycnar, E. 2017. Supporting minerals in lignite deposits (Kopaliny towarzyszące w złożach węgla brunatnego). Kraków: MERRI PAS (in Polish).

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Authors and Affiliations

Monika Pepłowska
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
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Abstract

Strategies and roadmaps are essential in areas that require long-term planning, such as the energy transition. Strategic plans can play an important role in developing visions for reducing CO2 emissions, developing renewable energy sources (RES) and hydrogen technologies. Hydrogen can be included in value chains in various sectors of the economy as raw material, emission-free fuel, or as an energy carrier and storage. The analysis of the future of hydrogen energy, which is an essential component of transforming the economy into an environmentally neutral one, is an integral part of the strategies of the European Union (EU) Member States.
This article reviews the strategic documents of the EU countries in the field of a hydrogen economy. Currently, six EU Member States have approved the hydrogen strategy (Germany, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, Hungary, Czech Republic), and two of them have roadmaps (Spain, Finland). The others are working on their completion in 2021. EU countries have the possibility of energy transformation based on a hydrogen policy, including green hydrogen, within the framework of the European Green Deal, i.e. aiming for climate neutrality and creating a modern and environmentally friendly economy.
By 2030, some of the countries plan to become a leader not only in the field of hydrogen production or RES development aimed at this process but also in the areas of research and development (R&D), sales of new technologies, and international cooperation. Member countries are focused on the production of clean hydrogen using electrolysis, creating incentives to stimulate demand, developing a hydrogen market, and implementing hydrogen infrastructure.
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Authors and Affiliations

Renata Koneczna
1
ORCID: ORCID
Justyna Cader
1 2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
  2. Faculty of Geology, University of Warsaw, Poland
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Abstract

The circular economy (CE) has been a European Union (EU) priority since 2014, when first official document on the CE was published. Currently, the EU is on the road to the transformation from a linear economy model to the CE model. In 2019, a new strategy was announced – the European Green Deal, the main goal of which is to mobilize the industrial sector for the CE implementation. The CE assumes that the generated waste should be treated as a secondary raw material. The paper presents an analysis of the possibility of using selected groups of waste for the production of fertilizers. Moreover, an identification of strengths and weaknesses, as well as market opportunities and threats related to the use of selected groups of waste as a valuable raw material for the production of fertilizers was conducted. The scope of the work includes characteristics of municipal waste (household waste, food waste, green waste, municipal sewage sludge, digestate), industrial waste (sewage sludge, ashes from biomass combustion, digestate) and agricultural waste (animal waste, plant waste), and a SWO T (strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis. The fertilizer use from waste is determined by the content of nutrients (phosphorus – P, nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, calcium ) and the presence of heavy metals unfavorable for plants (zinc, lead, mercury). Due to the possibility of contamination, including heavy metals, before introducing waste into the soil, it should be subjected to a detailed chemical analysis and treatment. The use of waste for the production of fertilizers allows for the reduction of the EU’s dependence on the import of nutrients from outside Europe, and is in line with the CE.
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Authors and Affiliations

Marzena Smol
1
ORCID: ORCID
Dominika Szołdrowska
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
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Abstract

An importance of secondary mineral raw materials sources for economy was demonstrated as well as sources of its acquirement were outlined. Various aspects of waste use in economy were discussed, underlining importance of waste removal for improvement of environment. A related legal framework in Poland and European Union was outlined. Results of already carried works in research and stocktaking of mineral waste accumulations in Poland were reminded. Legal procedures aiming at exploitation of mineral waste deposits formally defined and similar facilities falling outside definition of mineral waste deposits were discussed. It was evidenced that a gap in the legal framework exists, regarding particularity of waste acquirement from anthropogenic mineral deposits. Consequently, a need to require a preparation of equivalent of a resource report, feasibility study and a plan defining exploitation and conversion modes for material lifted from waste accumulations was demonstrated.
For the sake of a clear terminology applied it was recommended to incorporate terms of “anthropogenic mineral resources” and “anthropogenic mineral deposit” as an appropriate adjustment to the existing regulation. A need to intensify stocktaking efforts on mineral waste accumulations in Poland was emphasized. It was also suggested that its results should be recognized in the Balance of Mineral Resources and State Resource Policy.
In summary a recommended legal framework to regulate acquirement of mineral waste, recognizing particularities of such processes, was presented.
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Uberman, Ry. 2017. Accompanying minerals in lignite deposits. Volume II. Legal, economic and mining aspects of the development of accompanying minerals (Kopaliny towarzyszące w złożach węgla brunatnego. Tom II. Prawno – ekonomiczne oraz górnicze aspekty zagospodarowania kopalin towarzyszących). Kraków: MEERI PAS, pp. 128 (in Polish).

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Authors and Affiliations

Ryszard Uberman
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
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Abstract

The paper presented intends to fill up a gap in surveying the Hotelling Rule by taking a company based, microeconomic approach based on analyses of annual reports. Using selected data three fundamental hyphothesis are tested:
1) growth rate of margins (“net margins” including a capital charge) per unit realized by mining companies must exceed a rate equal to their cost of capital,
2) output shall follow deviations from the Hotelling growth line,
3) margins shall follow a path set by individually defined expected rate of return.
The analysis was based on 5 leading gold producers, responsible for ca 15–20% of global primary production, all of them public and listed on a stock exchange for the entire period of 2004–2019/2020. As margin shall grow at a rate compensating individual risk of a company in consideration, they shall not be homogenous. At 1st step industry WACC was adopted to calculate a normalized capital charge. The calculations revealed no support for Hotelling Rule. There is no evidence that over a period of above 15 years margins follow any path determined by a growing expotential function, following a compound rate. Subsequently it was checked whether output volume is corrected due to development of actual versus expected (resulting from the Hotelling Rule) margin values. Selected companies were near indifferent to this parameter while taking decisions in area of volumes supplied. Neither there is no evidence of relation between changes in output and margins. Finally, it was checked whether differences between expected and actual margins’ growth paths could be described by a linear function, resulting from consequent adoption of a risk rate component. Here neither any evidence was found. In conclusion no support for the Hotelling rule was identified.
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Authors and Affiliations

Robert Uberman
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University, Kraków, Poland
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Abstract

This paper presents the results of research on the admixture of other rock fragments in the granodiorite aggregate (two types of hornfels) produced in Łażany II quarry. It discusses the impact of these components on the selected chemical and mechanical properties important for the use of the aggregate in road construction. Analysed granodiorite grit is a high-class construction material suitable for bituminous mixtures. Its quality is verified in accordance with the PN-EN 13043 standard. The admixture of hornfels in aggregate composition is a consequence of the natural occuring this rock in the Łażany II granodiorite deposit in the Strzegom-Sobótka massif. As there is not selective exploitation of the deposit an extracted raw material is not separated during processing As a result, the aggregate, composed predominantly of granodiorite, comprises variable admixture of hornfels. Tests of properties, such as water absorption, resistance to freezing, resistance to fragmentation, crushing strength, carried out on grain populations of various petrographic types separated from the general samples, exhibit that the presence of hornfels in the aggregate has a beneficial effect, particularly on the mechanical parameters of the produced aggregate. Moreover, two varieties of hornfels differ in terms of some chemical properties (affinity with bitumen, presence of sulphides). These features may affect the durability of the aggregate in the wearing course which is directly influenced by the exterior conditions typical for road pavements.
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Authors and Affiliations

Bartłomiej Grzesik
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
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Abstract

Thermal waters have been recognized as a source of health and energy since ancient times, and today there is still interest in balneotherapy as a method of treating various diseases, rehabilitation and prevention. In Poland, as many as 12 spa towns use healing thermal waters in their activities. They include: Busko-Zdrój, Ciechocinek, Jelenia Góra-Cieplice, Gołdap, Inowrocław, Iwonicz-Zdrój, Konstancin-Jeziorna, Lądek-Zdrój, Rabka-Zdrój, Uniejów, Ustka and Ustroń. Healing thermal waters are not only used there for medical treatments, because they also supply the brine graduation towers, are the base for the production of cosmetics and are also used in drinking treatments. Uniejów spa is a part of the cascade system, so the healing waters of higher temperature are also used for heating apartments. Depending on the mineral composition of the waters, they can be used in the treatment of, among others: diseases of the musculoskeletal system, rheumatology, osteoporosis, skin diseases, diseases of the upper and lower respiratory tract, cardiological diseases, diseases of the digestive system, hypertension, obesity, diabetes. All treatments are non-invasive, because the vast majority of them are carried out in the form of bathing, irrigation, inhalation or drinking treatments. The paper also shows the most promising towns in terms of the development of balneotherapy, including Stargard, Pyrzyce, Toruń, Konin and Grudziądz. Balneotherapy in Poland is currently at a difficult time, which is related to the inability to function of many facilities due to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, there is a possibility that when the pandemic and its effects are eliminated, balneotherapy and spa treatment will experience a renaissance.
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Authors and Affiliations

Maciej Czubernat
1
ORCID: ORCID
Barbara Tomaszewska
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
  2. AGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków, Poland
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Abstract

The choice of financing sources made by coal mining companies reflects a number of macro- and microeconomic factors. The paper attempts to present only those that play the most important role in mining companies’ market activities. The structure of sources of financing mining companies’ operations is presented by computing the share of equity in liabilities and shareholders’ equity, the golden balance sheet rule showing the degree of financing of non-current assets through shareholders’ equity and the silver balance sheet rule which shows the ratio of long-term capital to non-current assets. Only a few mining companies can satisfy those two rules as they finance their economic activity through equity and short-term liabilities. Mining companies are not indebted. Their caution in incurring long- -term debt results from the implementation of high volatility of financial results, which are prone to the effects of the economic situation. The basic determinants of the choice of financing sources include the structure of assets, the rate of return on assets and companies’ ability to service debt. The high capital intensity of the mining sector is reflected in the large share of non-current assets in total assets, which in some mining companies exceeds 80% of total assets. The rates of return on assets vary widely and are influenced by fluctuations in coal prices at different phases of the market situation. They also have a significant impact on companies’ ability to service debt. Empirical research conducted by the author revealed that the structure of financing sources in Polish coal mining companies is like that of global mining corporations, as are the economic relations shaping this structure.
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Authors and Affiliations

Marta Sierpińska
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. University of Economics and Human Sciences in Warsaw, Poland
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Abstract

Sixteen samples were designed for analysis (hard coal, aggregate – barren rock, hard coal sludge). The total mercury content and the amount of mercury leaching were determined. The percentage of leachable form in the total content was calculated. The studies were carried out under various pH medium. The leachability under conditions close to neutral was determined in accordance with the PN EN 12457/1-4 standard. The leachability under acidic medium (pH of the solution – approx. 3) was determined in accordance with principles of the TCLP method. The mercury content was determined by means of the AAS method. For hard coal the total mercury content was 0.0384–0.1049 mg/kg. The level of leaching on mean was 2.6%. At the acidic medium the amount of leaching increases to an mean 4.1%. The extractive waste of aggregate type features a higher total mercury content in the finest fraction < 6 mm (up to 0.4564 mg/kg) and a lower content in the fraction 80–120 mm (up to 0.1006 mg/kg). The aggregate shows the percentage of the leachable form on mean from 1.4 to 2.2%. With pH decreasing to approx. 3, the amount of leaching grows up to mean values of 1.7–3.2%. Coal sludge features the total mercury content of 0.1368–0.2178 mg/kg. The percentage of mercury leachable form is approx. 1.8%. With pH decreasing the value increases to mean value of 3.0%. In general, the leachability of mercury from hard coals and extractive waste is low, and the leachability in an acidic medium grows approx. twice. Such factors as the type and origin of samples, their grain composition, and the pH conditions, have basic importance for the process. The time of waste seasoning and its weathering processes have the greatest impact on increasing the leaching of mercury from the extractive waste.
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Authors and Affiliations

Beata Klojzy-Karczmarczyk
1
ORCID: ORCID
Janusz Mazurek
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
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Abstract

The purpose of the study was determining of degree of contamination of soil cover as a result of disposing of different industrial wastes and comparison of the soil quality with quality of soils and the grounds described in standards in relation to the reclamation works carried out on the dump. Analysed waste dump belongs to the sparse objects of this type in the Upper Silesian Coal Basin, where both coal mining wastes as well as flying ashes occur.
During investigations there was done a collection of 9 soil samples around the dump using Egner`s cane from the depth of 30 cm. The content of heavy metals was determined (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn) using method of emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) and phase composition studies using the X-ray diffraction method (XRD ).
Obtained results enabled determination of impact of disposed wastes on the degradation of pedosphere of studied area, which represents III group of fallow lands. The contents of heavy metals in soil samples vary in wide spectrum, but do not exceed permissible content of metals and metalloids for the aforementioned soil group. The highest concentrations reaches iron (average content 0,6%), while concentrations of other elements do not exceed 0.02%. In the mineral composition of soil samples the dominant components are typical for soils in the area of post-mining dumps, i.e. quartz, feldspars, clay minerals, represented by kaolinite and illite. The presence of muscovite with a share of < 5% was also found. Minerals from the carbonate group – calcite (< 3.5%) and dolomite (< 0.3%) occur rarely. In the investigated samples there was identified presence of mullite, component typical for wastes coming from energy sector.
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Authors and Affiliations

Marek Marcisz
1
ORCID: ORCID
Zdzisław Adamczyk
1
ORCID: ORCID
Łukasz Gawor
1
ORCID: ORCID
Katarzyna Nowińska
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
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Abstract

Two kaolin ores with the almost same fineness and purity of original kaolinite but possessing different kaolinite crystallinity (Hinckley Index) were selected to study the influence of crystallinity and calcination conditions on the pozzolanic activity of metakaolin after dehydroxylation. The different calcination conditions were conducted by altering the calcination temperature and holding time to obtain different metakaolin samples with different degrees of dehydroxylation. Then pozzolanic activities of metakaolin samples were tested by the modified Chapelle test, Frattini test and strength evaluations. Additionally, the apparent activation energies of two kaolin ores were calculated to study the thermal properties of kaolinite by isoconversional methods followed by iterative computations. The results showed that pozzolanic activities were dependent on the degree of dehydroxylation, except for the metakaolins calcined at 900℃ due to the fact that recrystallization and high pozzolanic activity was conducted by complete dehydroxylation (degree of dehydroxylation ≥ 90%). Moreover, the lower crystallinity of original kaolinite favored the removal of the structural hydroxyls, leading to a reduction of apparent activation energy and increase of pozzolanic activity, indicating that the higher calcination temperature or longer holding time was required during calcination to reach the same degree of dehydroxylation and finally highly ordered kaolinite converted into the less active metakaolinite, which was confirmed by the lower Ca(OH)2 consumption in the modified Chapelle test, higher [CaO] and [OH] in the Frattini test and weaker compressive strength.
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Bibliography

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Authors and Affiliations

Yuanyuan Liu
1
ORCID: ORCID
Qian Huang
1
Liang Zhao
1
Shaomin Lei
2

  1. Yangtze Normal University, Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Structure Full-Life-Cycle Health Detection and Disaster Prevention, China
  2. Wuhan University of Technology, China
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Abstract

In Polish mining enterprises, mining exploitation processes are often carried out in much more difficult geological and mining conditions. At the same time, underground operation must be carried out in accordance with the legal requirements concerning work safety and public safety. In these circumstances, taking into account the fact that hard coal mining is by nature a less competitive industry, it should be stated that in Poland managing a mining enterprise is a real challenge. Additionally, in the situation of the functioning of mining enterprises in the conditions of the market economy and constant changes in the economic situation for coal, both on the domestic and foreign markets, the degree of management difficulties, including planning and decision making, is constantly increasing. This is a result of not only the specificity of mining production processes, but also the need to conduct effective economic activity in a constantly and dynamically changing environment. During the implementation of changes in a mining enterprise, the variety of conditions often increases difficulties in the change forecasting system and generates a high risk of implementing adaptive measures. The changes may have a different scope – from gradual, aimed at improving the activities carried out or slowly adapting to changes in the environment, through changes in implemented processes, to radical changes in functioning, often associated with organizational changes.This article aims to present the method of managing a mining enterprise, Poland Grupa Górnicza SA, established during the period of significant changes that took place at that time, both in the company itself and in the hard coal mining industry.
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Authors and Affiliations

Patrycja Bąk
1
ORCID: ORCID
Tomasz Rogala
2

  1. AGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków, Poland
  2. Polska Grupa Górnicza SA, Katowice, Poland
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Abstract

The protection of copper and silver ore resources in the Polish Lubuskie Province requires certain steps to be taken, the suggestions for which are presented in this article. It addresses both known and newly discovered ore deposits, as well as prospective areas and places of ongoing exploration, which throughout the paper are collectively recognized as potential Cu-Ag mining areas. The example of Lubuskie Province was chosen as an exceptional region with multiple known areas of copper and silver ore potential, but no active mining operations until now. The study focuses on the nature and location of all potential mining areas in Lubuskie Province, and subsequently suggests the means of their protection which can be implemented today, as well as in the future. Such means should be introduced by way of new or amended legal regulations. Certain major changes to Polish law are necessary to provide sufficient protection of both currently known, as well as possible future deposits, against such use of land which would prevent the extraction of their resources. The study shows that the legal regulations effective in Poland today are insufficient or too vague, as they do not include any provisions concerning prospective resources, as well as areas of active mineral exploration, instead focusing solely on officially registered mineral deposits. Therefore, the proposals of new solutions providing better protection of all potential Cu-Ag mining areas are presented in this article.
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Authors and Affiliations

Krzysztof Zieliński
1
ORCID: ORCID
Stanisław Speczik
2 1
ORCID: ORCID
Tomasz Bieńko
2 1
ORCID: ORCID
Alicja Pietrzela
2 1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Miedzi Copper Corporation, Warszawa, Poland
  2. University of Warsaw
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Abstract

The Green Deal and the New Industrial Strategy for Europe recognize the access to raw materials and the security of supply from secondary and primary sources as essential for Europe’s transition to sustainability. It can be expected that with the development of the circular economy approach, the extraction of primary resources would be diminished, but it is emphasized that a circular economy may need a wider range of metals and other raw materials critical to the new environmentally friendly technology, especially in renewable energy and mobility. Therefore, the latest global initiatives and EU policies focus on ensuring resource efficiency in a holistic manner, from the extraction of raw materials to the re-use of the end products, which requires data transparency not only on material and waste flows, but also on financial and economic burdens including incentives and subsidies. In addition, for sectors with significant environmental impacts, the transparency of information on payments to central governments and local authorities can increase social acceptance and accountability and allow for further development. The paper analyzes regulations and initiatives supporting the disclosure of wider data than required in financial and corporate social responsibility reporting related to the implementation of a circular economy. As circular economy indicators take upstream resource flows into account, the transparency of environmental and economic data in the value chain is required, for example for the calculation of the environmental footprint. Moreover, transparency is important for mining companies’ stakeholders to increase social acceptance of mining activities and facilitate the transition to a circular economy.
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Authors and Affiliations

Agnieszka Nowaczek
1
ORCID: ORCID
Joanna Kulczycka
1
ORCID: ORCID
Ewa Dziobek
1
ORCID: ORCID
Daina Kalnina
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
  2. Riga Technical University, Ryga, Latvia
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Abstract

The article attempts to define issues related to sustainable development (SD) in the context of the mining industry. The purpose of this publication is to analyze the implementation of sustainable development goals by mining companies in Poland, including Lubelski Węgiel Bogdanka SA, KGHM Polska Miedź SA and the Górażdże HeidelbergCement Group. The work is based on a review of previous research, formulating the activities of the mining industry in accordance with each of the seventeen goals presented in the Agenda 2030. Non-financial reports were used to analyze the scope of implementation of SD goals in Poland, an expert assessment was used, which allowed the strengths and weaknesses of the industry in this particular area of interest to be formulated. A change in awareness towards SD in environmental, social and economic domains has undeniably taken place. Reports published by the companies inform about activities consistent with the particular SD objectives. The scope of their implementation varies across the analyzed entities. Increasing the exposure of the discussed topic improves the image of companies, but also allows to notice their efforts whilst indicating real actions that are deemed as good practices. Mining entrepreneurs struggle with limitations and difficulties in implementing changes. The main challenge is the environmental aspect. Undoubtedly, the means of persuasion (also in this regard) are legal regulations that require finalization, especially when it comes to the mining industry and the state’s raw materials policy.
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Authors and Affiliations

Katarzyna Pactwa
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland
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Abstract

A systematic increase in the demand for mineral raw materials combined with the difficulty of obtaining them from primary sources, made it necessary to use secondary ones including mineral waste. The effectiveness of the management of mineral waste stored in landfills and from current production depends on many factors. The most important ones include the legal regulations of this activity and the technical and organizational determinants of deposit exploitation, processing, and refining of minerals.
The paper analyzes the current waste (including mining waste) management regulations. The technological discrepancies in these regulations, as well as missing or inaccurate classifications, were demonstrated. The interchangeable use of notions: mining/mine and extractive/extraction is a primary source of problems. It also has to be noted that accompanying and joint minerals are not defined in appropriate legislation. Attention was also paid to the omission of important issues in these regulations, e.g. product structure, construction of anthropogenic deposits, etc. It was emphasized and demonstrated with examples that the comprehensive and rational exploitation of mineral deposits, combined with processing and refining of mineral raw materials is an effective way of using mineral waste. The obtained results allowed for formulating proposals regarding legal provisions regulating waste management and the recommendation of technical and organizational solutions for the activities of mining, processing, and refining of mineral raw materials.
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Authors and Affiliations

Ryszard Uberman
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
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Abstract

This paper first describes basic information on 13 mineral resource strategy reports issued by the world’s major mineral resource exploration countries and regions, including Australia, Canada, Europe, the U.S., Russia, and India. Through these strategic reports, we identified the problems facing current mineral exploration and development, such as mining issues, increased on land access and permitting, disincentives to obtain precompetitive geoscience information, and the urgent need to improve exploration technology to adapt to new demands. Then, by studying the visions and aims of the new mineral resource strategies, this paper found that the strategic goals have something in common: to display a new image of mining development. The new image of mining development is an image of advanced mining through green development, ecological protection, technology intensity, sustainability, and social acceptance, consolidating the primary position and foundational role of mineral resources and mining development in economic and social development. The new image creates a favorable development environment for the rational use and adequate protection of mineral resources. After that, a summary of the measures taken to achieve these objectives, which include strengthening domestic mineral exploration, increasing coordination between mineral exploration and ecological environmental protection, strengthening the life cycle management of the industrial chain, playing a significant role in scientific and technological innovation, and paying close attention to significant shifts in the focus on critical minerals, is provided.
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Authors and Affiliations

Yu Yun
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. China Geological Survey Development and Research Center, China
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Abstract

The stable supply of iron ore resources is not only related to energy security, but also to a country’s sustainable development. The accurate forecast of iron ore demand is of great significance to the industrialization development of a country and even the world. Researchers have not yet reached a consensus about the methods of forecasting iron ore demand. Combining different algorithms and making full use of the advantages of each algorithm is an effective way to develop a prediction model with high accuracy, reliability and generalization performance. The traditional statistical and econometric techniques of the Holt–Winters (HW) non-seasonal exponential smoothing model and autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model can capture linear processes in data time series. The machine learning methods of support vector machine (SVM) and extreme learning machine (ELM) have the ability to obtain nonlinear features from data of iron ore demand. The advantages of the HW, ARIMA, SVM, and ELM methods are combined in various degrees by intelligent optimization algorithms, including the genetic algorithm (GA), particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm and simulated annealing (SA) algorithm. Then the combined forecast models are constructed. The contrastive results clearly show that how a high forecasting accuracy and an excellent robustness could be achieved by the particle swarm optimization algorithm combined model, it is more suitable for predicting data pertaining to the iron ore demand.
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Authors and Affiliations

Min Ren
1
Jianyong Dai
2
Wancheng Zhu
3
Feng Dai
3
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
  2. University of South China, Hengyang, China
  3. Northeastern University, Shenyang
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Abstract

Corporate social responsibility policy is widely used by mining companies as a tool for reliable operation. However, the application of CSR activities does not ensure gaining social acceptance, which is crucial for undisrupted minerals extraction and project development. In this article, the authors review tools used by mining companies to implement and measure corporate social responsibility and examines the level of social acceptance for mining operations by conducting a survey among 78 members of the local community in Legnica–Głogów Copper Basin. The research is based on: 1. Existing methods of measuring Social License to Operate; 2. Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method – proposed by the authors to verify its usefulness for defining factors that have an impact on the social acceptance for mining. The study, based on the case of one of the leading world’s copper producers, shows that despite the large financial outlays allocated to the development of the local community, mining companies struggle with achieving a full social license to operate. The hierarchization of factors influencing the perception of mining activity can help companies prioritize areas that require a deeper dialogue with the local community. The success of future extractive projects depends on proper recognition of local community attitudes towards mining. The findings show that the successful implementation of the CSR strategy should be preceded by a broad analysis of social conditions to meet the expectations of stakeholders.
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Authors and Affiliations

Zuzanna Łacny
1
ORCID: ORCID
Anna Ostręga
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. AGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków, Poland
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Abstract

In Poland, the mineral sector generates 110–130 million tons of wastes annually (in the last 20 years), and metal ore mining alone was responsible for 31.2 million tons of wastes in 2017. The slags deposited at the Polkowice were investigated. This waste may be a potential source of many valuable metals (Zn, Pb, Cu, Sb, Sn, Se). The tailings dump in Polkowice contains approximately 80,000 tons of slag. The material contains primary phases formed by pyrometallurgical processes and secondary phases, which are the result of transformation of primary components. The primary phases are represented by sulfides: sphalerite [ZnS]; wurtzite [(Zn,Fe)S]; pyrite [FeS2]; sulfates: beaverite-(Zn) [Pb(Fe3+ 2Zn)(SO4)2(OH)6]; palmierite [(K,Na)2Pb(SO4)2]; oxides and hydroxides: goethite [Fe3+O(OH)]; wüestite [FeO]; hematite [Fe2O3]; magnetite [Fe2+Fe3+ 2O4]; chromian spinel [Fe2+Cr3+ 2O4]; silicates: petedunnite [Ca(Zn,Mn2+,Mg,Fe2+)Si2O6]; quartz [SiO2]; and microcline [KAlSi3O8]. Additionally, SEM -BSE observations revealed that oxidized native metals (Cu, Pb, As) and metal alloys and semi-metals appear. The slag consists mainly of SiO2 (13.70–20.60 wt%), Fe2O3 (24.90–39.62 wt%) and subordinately of CaO (2.71–6.94 wt%) and MgO (1.34–4.68 wt%). High contents are formed by Zn (9.42–17.38 wt%), Pb (5.13–13.74 wt%) and Cu (1.29–2.88 wt%). The slag contains trace elements Mo (487.4–980.1 ppm), Ni (245.3–530.7 ppm), Sn (2380.0–4441.5 ppm), Sb (2462.8–4446.0 ppm), Se (168.0–293.0 ppm). High concentrations are formed by toxic elements, such as e.g. As (13 100–22 600 ppm) and Cd (190.5–893.1 ppm). It is estimated that the tailings dump has accumulated about 80,000 t of slag, which may contain about 10,000 t of Zn, about 6,700 t of Pb, and 1,500 t of Cu.
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Authors and Affiliations

Karol Zglinicki
1
ORCID: ORCID
Krzysztof Szamałek
2
ORCID: ORCID
Anna Czarnecka-Skwarek
2
ORCID: ORCID
Katarzyna Żyłka
2 1

  1. Polish Geological Institute – Polish Research Institute, Warszawa, Poland
  2. University of Warsaw, Warszawa, Poland
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Abstract

Generation of coal-based electricity is always associated with the origination of large amount of combustion waste. The presented article is a review concerning the possibilities of innovative directions of management for one of the by-products of coal combustion: fly ash. The storage of these waste products is associated with their negative impact on the environment. This is why research has been undertaken worldwide on the implementation of the concept of a circular economy. This article includes the examination of basic physical, chemical, and mineralogical properties of the most valuable components of fly ash (microspheres, magnetic fraction, and glass). It contains the examination of methods of separating these components and indicates the prospective directions of their use, e.g. as light fillers for polymers, sorbents, catalysts, composite materials, light ceramics, lightweight concretes, thermal insulation materials, biomaterials, raw material for the synthesis of zeolites or geopolymers. The paper also presents the components of fly ash, which can be treated as an alternative source of valuable elements, including critical elements. Moreover, it points to the necessity of capturing flammable substances from combustion by-products in order to obtain raw material characterised by a high degree of purity. It has been demonstrated that this way of ash management can lead to high recycling rates and bring valuable materials back to the economy. Such actions fit perfectly into global efforts for sustainable development and the circular economy.
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Authors and Affiliations

Ewa Strzałkowska
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
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Abstract

In the execution of edge detection algorithms and clustering algorithms to segment image containing ore and soil, ore images with very similar textural features cannot be segmented effectively when the two algorithms are used alone. This paper proposes a novel image segmentation method based on the fusion of a confidence edge detection algorithm and a mean shift algorithm, which integrates image color, texture and spatial features. On the basis of the initial segmentation results obtained by the mean shift segmentation algorithm, the edge information of the image is extracted by using the edge detection algorithm based on the confidence degree, and the edge detection results are applied to the initial segmentation region results to optimize and merge the ore or pile belonging to the same region. The experimental results show that this method can successfully overcome the shortcomings of the respective algorithm and has a better segmentation results for the ore, which effectively solves the problem of over segmentation.
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Authors and Affiliations

Feng Jin
1 2
ORCID: ORCID
Kai Zhan
1
Shengjie Chen
1
Shuwei Huang
1
ORCID: ORCID
Yuansheng Zhang
1

  1. BGRIMM Technology Group, China
  2. University of Science and Technology Beijing, China

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