Applied sciences

Metrology and Measurement Systems

Content

Metrology and Measurement Systems | 2025 | vol. 32 | No 3

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Abstract

Analysing traffic data collected under varying conditions requires the categorization of vehicle types. One significant issue is that most of the sensors used in vehicle classification systems cannot detect a lifted axle, which often leads to incorrect vehicle categorization. This article recommends utilizing a multi-frequency inductive loop (IL) impedance measurement (MFILIM) system for measuring vehicle inter-axle distances, also in the case of lifted axles. Two slim IL sensors and two wide IL sensors are utilized in the proposed MFILIM system. The vehicle speed and inter-axle distances are evaluated using the vehicle magnetic profile (VMP) waveforms, which are derived from the IL impedance measurements taken simultaneously at three carrier frequencies for a single IL sensor. The potential of the proposed method was validated through a laboratory testbed (LTB) equipped with IL sensor models and vehicle models constructed on a 1:50 scale. Additionally, validation was conducted under real traffic conditions using a road testbed installed adjacent to a commercial weigh-in-motion (WIM) system. The results obtained from several different test vehicles, which passed through the measuring stations multiple times during the experiment, were selected for analysis. The analysis indicated that the MFILIM system outperformed the commercial WIM station by yielding smaller errors in determining inter-axle distances. In addition, it successfully detected a lifted axle in all cases and accurately determined its distance from adjacent axles.
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Authors and Affiliations

Zbigniew Marszałek
1
Artur Ryguła
2
Andrzej Maczyński
2
Krzysztof Duda
1

  1. AGH University of Krakow, Department of Measurement and Electronics, Mickiewicz Avenue 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland
  2. University of Bielsko-Biala, Department of Transport, Willowa 2, 43-309 Bielsko-Biala, Poland
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Abstract

The publication provides a critical analysis of fundamental documents concerning the determination of measurement uncertainty from the perspective of the machinery industry. The requirements contained in the documents JCGM 104, JCGM 100, and JCGM 101 were compared with important documents used in geometrical measurements, particularly with EA-4/02, ISO 14253-2, ISO/TS 15530-1, ISO 15530-3, ISO/TS 15530-4, and VDI/VDE 2617-11. Significant differences between the documents analysed, both terminological and interpretative, were highlighted. The analysis was performed in the sequence of stages for determining measurement uncertainty: formulation, propagation, and summarizing. Special attention was paid to the problem of defining the measurement model and the insufficient reference to the measurement model in the analysed documents. Attention was drawn to the wide range of characteristics measured in the machinery industry, such as linear and angular dimensions and form, orientation, position, and runout deviations, as well as the wide range of measurement equipment used, from simple instruments like callipers, micrometers, and mechanical dial gauges, to coordinate measuring machines and measurement systems. The current approach to the uncertainty of coordinate measurements, including the new possibility of modelling coordinate measurement, was discussed.
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Authors and Affiliations

Mirosław Wojtyła
1
Wojciech Płowucha
1

  1. University of Bielsko-Biała, Laboratory of Metrology, Willowa 2, 43-309 Bielsko-Biała, Poland
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Abstract

Sleep apnea is a sleep disorder that can have serious health consequences. Its detection and differentiation between the types obstructive (OSA), central (CSA), and mixed (MSA) is crucial for selecting appropriate therapy. The aim of this study was to compare three feature selection methods: Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), Neighbourhood Components Analysis (NCA), and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) in the context of detecting sleep apnea and its types using single-channel EEG signals. In the study, the EEG signals were pre-processed, divided into 30-second segments, and analyzed using a two-stage feature extraction approach. Feature selection methods (PSO, NCA, and PCA) were then applied to reduce data dimensionality and identify the most informative parameters. Parameter optimization was also conducted for each method. Classification was performed using the k-NN algorithm. The results showed that the PSO method achieved the highest average classification accuracy of 98.03%, reducing the number of features from 379 to 134, while NCA achieved an accuracy of 97.96%, reducing the number of features from 424 to 127. Although PCA was effective in dimensionality reduction, it achieved a lower accuracy of 85.56%. The applied methods enabled clear differentiation between normal breathing and sleep apnea episodes, with classification errors occurring only in distinguishing between apnea types.
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Authors and Affiliations

Kinga Kaczmarek

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Abstract

Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) is a category of MEX additive manufacturing processes that has gained considerable popularity. Its ability to produce cylindrical machine parts makes it a particularly useful technology in this field. In order to ascertain the accuracy of the cylindrical component, it is necessary to carry out a measurement and evaluation of the cylindricity deviation. This measurement can identify defects that are the consequence of the 3D printing process, thus providing valuable insight into the quality of the printed object. Nevertheless, in numerous studies, the impact of the manner in which STL digital files are saved on the formation of errors in the shape of cylindrical elements is overlooked. This article presents studies aimed at determining the influence of STL recording of a virtual model on the accuracy of the printout, as determined by the cylindricity deviation. The measurements were conducted using a Prismo Navigator coordinate measuring machine produced by Zeiss. It has been demonstrated that the manner in which a digital file is saved has an effect on the characteristics of irregularities in cylindrical surfaces, which, in turn, affects the value of cylindricity deviation. The findings of the study, as detailed in the article, will provide a framework for the selection of parameters for the recording of STL files, with the objective of obtaining cylindrical surfaces of an acceptable quality, ��.��. the lowest value of cylindricity deviation.
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Authors and Affiliations

Paweł Zmarzły
1
ORCID: ORCID
Paweł Szczygieł
1
Anna Bujarska
1

  1. Kielce University of Technology, Faculty of Mechatronics and Mechanical Engineering,Tysiąclecia Państwa Polskiego 7 Ave., 25-314 Kielce
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Abstract

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is essential for optimising the efficiency of photovoltaic (PV) systems. Selecting the appropriate MPPT algorithm allows for better utilisation of solar energy. Under Partial Shading Conditions (PSC), the power-voltage (P–V) curve becomes nonlinear, leading to multiple Local Maximum Power Points (LMPP), which complicates the identification of the Global Maximum Power Point (GMPP) and reduces system efficiency. This paper reviews and classifies MPPT methods into four categories: classical, metaheuristic, AI-based, and hybrid. These approaches are compared in terms of tracking accuracy, speed, adaptability to changing conditions, and robustness. Special focus is placed on methods that maintain performance under PSC, minimising energy losses and improving system stability. The goal is to highlight the strengths and limitations of each method and suggest directions for further optimisation to enhance the reliability and overall efficiency of PV systems in real-world conditions.
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Authors and Affiliations

Janusz Mroczka
1
Kinga Kaczmarek
2

  1. Department of Control Science and Engineering, Opole University of Technology, ul. Prószkowska 76, 45-758 Opole, Poland
  2. Department of Electronic and Photonic Metrology, Faculty of Electronics, Photonics and Microsystems, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
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Abstract

This article presents the design, implementation, and validation of an SpO2 sensor prototype, developed as part of a military medical evacuation system. The reflectance method was chosen for the measurement of SpO2, allowing readings to be taken from any location on the body, unlike the traditional transmissive method. The sensor is designed as a headband worn on the forehead, a well-perfused area, ensuring that the placement does not hinder the mobility of the soldier. The sensor construction utilized an SFH7072 optical module, an AFE4410 integrated circuit, and an STM32L5 microcontroller. To obtain accurate SpO2 readings, signal processing techniques, including filtering, were applied, along with the development of algorithms to calculate SpO2 from photoplethysmographic (PPG) signals. The prototype underwent validation tests using a comprehensive experimental setup. The prototype achieved an ARMS (root mean square difference) value of 3.0%, meeting the ISO 80601-2-61 standard for reflectance sensors, which recommends an ��RMS ≤ 3.5%.
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Authors and Affiliations

Dominik Sondej
1
Paweł Oskwarek
2
Rafał Sokołowski
2
Michał Rząd
2
Adam Machowicz
2
Tadeusz Sondej
1
Paweł Dąbal
1
Paweł Łubkowski
1

  1. Military University of Technology, Faculty of Electronics, ul. gen. S. Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland
  2. Military Institute of Medicine, ul. Szaserów 128, 04-141 Warsaw, Poland
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Abstract

The paper concerns the optimization methodology of design of a high-resolution digital phase synchronizer (DPS) module cooperating with a multi-channel coincidence counter. The main function of the DPS module was to ensure high synchronization between the measurement system and trigger pulses (with various repetition rates) from the photo detector. With this approach, it became possible to adapt the measurement system to work with a wide spectrum of excitation sources while maintaining the required metrological parameters. The DPS resolution is determined by the architecture of coding tapped delay lines (TDLs) utilized, whereas the degree of synchronization is determined by the differences in their integral nonlinearity errors (��INL). In traditional DPS designs, the basis for synchronization were single TDLs built on arithmetic carry chain paths, which are usually characterized by high nonlinearity. The approach presented in this paper assumes the use of complex tapped delay lines (CTDLs) and an appropriate selection of spatial TDLs allocations within a programmable logic structure. The proposed solution enables an effective minimization (from 62.6 ps to 26.2 ps) of the synchronization error between the measurement system and the investigated process.
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Authors and Affiliations

Robert Frankowski
1
Maciej Gurski
1
Ryszard Szplet
2

  1. Institute of Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, ul. Grudziądzka 5, 87-100 Toruń, Poland
  2. Institute of Communication Systems, Faculty of Electronics, Military University of Technology, ul. gen. Sylwestra Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland
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Abstract

In this work, the electron beam ion source (EBIS) was used to study the molecular fragmentation of the deuterated propane C3D8 molecules. The experiments were performed in the Kielce EBIS facility at Jan Kochanowski University (Kielce, Poland). During the measurements, the EBIS operated in the so-called leaky mode, which guaranteed a wide spectrum of fragmented ions with a constant value of the beam current. The molecular fragments produced in the source were charge-separated using a dipole magnet and detected with a Faraday cup connected to a high-sensitivity electrometer. The measured mass spectrum exhibited a variety of possible molecular fragments, including CD�� (�� = 0 − 3), C2D�� (�� = 0 − 5), and C3D�� (�� = 0 − 8). Systematic tests were performed to illustrate the influence of working gas pressure and current of the electron beam on the intensity of individual fragmentary ions.
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Authors and Affiliations

Karol Szary
1
Dariusz Banaś
1
Ilona Stabrawa
1
Regina Stachura
1 2
Aldona Kubala-Kukuś
1
Jacek Semaniak
1 2
Paweł Jagodziński
1 2
Daniel Sobota
1
Marek Pajek
1
Bartosz Majewski
3
Marta Łabuda
3 4

  1. Jan Kochanowski University, Institute of Physics, Uniwersytecka 7, 25-406 Kielce, Poland
  2. Central Office of Measures, Elektoralna 2, 00-139 Warsaw, Poland
  3. Gdańsk University of Technology, Institute of Physics and Computer Science, Gabriela Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
  4. Gdańsk University of Technology, BioTechMed Center, Gabriela Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
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Abstract

Tilted fibre Bragg gratings (TFBGs) have a characteristic transmission spectrum in the form of a fine comb of cladding mode resonances. This spectrum changes significantly when the sensor is immersed in a substance with a specific refractive index (RI) value. Surrounding RI (SRI) values can be derived from the global shape of the entire cladding mode spectrum or the local shape of a single mode. In this article, we present comparisons of two types of TFBG spectra demodulation methods for SRI determination. The first approach to determining the SRI is based on the local wavelength shift of a single mode and a group of cladding modes. As a modification, a differential method of analysis of two modes and two groups of modes (spectral bands) was proposed. As a result, differential methods with better resolution and linearity were obtained compared to single-mode analysis. To determine the local shift, the centroid, fast phase correlation and cross-correlation methods were used. The global spectrum analysis method with cut-off wavelength determination was used as the other type of demodulation method. The cut-off wavelength shift was determined using the maximum derivative method of the smoothed absolute value of the derivative of the optical spectrum. The best resolution for SRI determination with the local method was 2.4·10−5 RIU, while for the global method it was 1.75·10−5 RIU for the SRI measurement range of 1.333 to 1.361 RIU.
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Authors and Affiliations

Sławomir Cięszczyk
1
Krzysztof Skorupski
1
Patryk Panas
1
Martyna Wawrzyk
2

  1. Department of Electronics and Information Technology, Lublin University of Technology, ul. Nadbystrzycka 38A, 20-618 Lublin, Poland
  2. Doctoral School, Lublin University of Technology, ul. Nadbystrzycka 38D/406, 20-618 Lublin, Poland
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Abstract

This paper introduces a navigation system, and a data processing algorithm tailored for a handheld groundpenetrating radar (GPR), along with results from real-world tests conducted using a physical model. Handheld GPR systems are indispensable for scanning challenging and inaccessible terrains, particularly to detect buried landmines and other explosive remnants of war, where vehicle-mounted GPR systems cannot operate effectively. Building on previous research, which focused on a system designed with stationary and mobile ultrawideband radio transceivers tested via simulations, this study addresses practical challenges encountered in a real-world physical model. A novel data processing algorithm is proposed to handle key issues, including a variable number of distance measurements per estimation step and the presence of measurement outliers. Furthermore, the methodology and results of the real-world testing of the positioning system, conducted using an industrial robot for controlled experimentation, are presented and discussed.
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Authors and Affiliations

Tomasz Kraszewski
1
ORCID: ORCID
Jarosław Panasiuk
2
Paweł Słowak
1
Piotr Kaniewski
1

  1. Military University of Technology, Faculty of Electronics, ul. gen. S. Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland
  2. Military University of Technology, Faculty of Mechatronics, Armament and Aerospace, ul. gen. S. Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland
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Abstract

This paper presents an ensemble-based approach that uses convolutional neural network (CNN) classifiers to recognise breast cancer from mammogram images. The proposed method integrates several well-performing CNN models, each selected on the basis of its individual efficiency, into a unified ensemble framework. The classifiers are aggregated using a majority voting strategy that considers the predicted class probabilities to make the final decision. This ensemble technique aims to enhance robustness, reduce the impact of misclassifications by individual models, and improve overall diagnostic reliability. The system was evaluated in a data set that contained mammograms classified into three diagnostic classes: malignant, benign, and normal. Numerical experiments demonstrated that the proposed approach significantly improves classification performance compared to classical machine learning methods and standalone CNN models. The ensemble achieved higher accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity, particularly in distinguishing between benign and malignant cases—a critical challenge in breast cancer diagnostics. These results highlight the potential of CNN ensembles in supporting more accurate computer-aided diagnosis in breast cancer screening.
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Authors and Affiliations

Fabian Gil
1
Stanisław Osowski
1 2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Military University of Technology, Faculty of Electronics, Institute of Electronic Systems, ul. gen. Sylwestra Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland
  2. Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, pl. Politechniki 1, 00-661 Warsaw, Poland
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Abstract

This paper aims to present an approach to optimising MEMS-based vibration sensors by strategically placing the accelerometer to maximise the sensor’s performance. Optimisation requires establishing specific criteria, and in this case, the objective is to maximise SNR, which is crucial for ensuring accurate and reliable measurements. In practical applications, vibration signals received by sensors can be highly complex, often containing a cyclic fault signature that is distorted by the transmission path. In addition, signals are frequently obscured by noise from other sources, reducing overall SNR. Addressing these issues, sensor placement becomes critical, as different positions in the structure can either amplify or decrease fault signatures that are essential for diagnosis. In the past, MEMS vibration sensors were efficient only for low frequency bands. The selected MEMS sensor has a linear frequency response range up to 11 kHz, so research focused on maintaining the linear response in our range of interest, and therefore the sensor design proves the ability to cover a wide frequency band. Having such a MEMS sensor enables one to create Condition Monitoring (CM) for early detection of various faults. One of the problems in realisation of a sensor is the design of the mechanical part so that the vibrations of machinery are properly transmitted in the frequency band of a sensor. Equally important is finding a location within the sensor to achieve an optimal signal transfer path. Ultimately, this optimisation aims to provide a robust solution for diagnostics, making MEMS-based sensors a viable alternative to piezoelectric sensors in industrial environments.
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Authors and Affiliations

Wojciech Staszewski
1
Adam Jablonski
2

  1. AGH University of Krakow, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics, al. A. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland
  2. AGH University of Krakow, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics,al. A. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland
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Abstract

The paper presents an analysis of specific spectra manipulation and its metrological consequences for optical coherence tomography (OCT) in the nanometre wavelength range using a laser-plasma source of soft X-rays (SXR) and extreme ultraviolet (EUV). The focus is on extending the recorded spectra, predominantly through the stitching method. A model spectrum is used to validate the technique and transparently demonstrate the behaviour of the stitched spectral components. The model is followed by processing the experimental data and demonstrating two possible destructive factors for data processing. The first is an unbalanced spectrum. Although spectral extension toward higher photon energies significantly improves spatial resolution, it appears to be a second destructive factor. The results presented also highlighted certain technological and physical issues related to the material properties of the sample, such as potential plasmonic effects. Consequently, the results, although offering much greater flexibility and ability to adjust the final spectrum and providing better reconstruction, also recommend caution in the scope and choice of the applied modification method.
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Authors and Affiliations

Antony Jose Arikkatt
1
Karol Adam Janulewicz
1
Andrzej Bartnik
1
Henryk Fiedorowicz
1
Przemysław Wachulak
1

  1. Institute of Optoelectronics, Military University of Technology, ul. Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland
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Abstract

This paper presents the design, implementation, and performance evaluation of a 3-channel integrated time interval counter implemented in a low-cost Spartan-7 (AMD/Xilinx) FPGA device. Based on a hybrid measurement approach that combines timestamping and two-stage interpolation, the proposed solution provides high metrological parameters, such as: time resolution (2 ps), measurement precision (better than 8 ps) and range (up to 1 h). To achieve high resolution and reduce nonlinearity of the time-to-digital converters (TDCs) involved, the multi-edge coding in four independent tapped delay lines (TDL) was applied. An improved encoder eliminates bubble errors and compresses raw TDL data with limited logic overhead. The integrated code processor performs real-time calibration based on the statistical code density test (SCDT). Implemented within a low-end FPGA chip, the time counter occupies approximately one-third of available logic resources and consumes around 0.5 W. Experimental evaluation confirms the system’s potential for cost-effective, high-performance time interval measurements in portable instrumentation.
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Authors and Affiliations

Ryszard Szplet
1
Paweł Kwiatkowski
1
Krzysztof Różyc
1
Dominik Sondej
1
Zbigniew Jachna
1
Jakub Tyburski
2
Paweł Ślązak
1
Albin Czubla
2
Piotr Szterk
2

  1. Military University of Technology, Faculty of Electronics, Institute of Telecommunication, ul gen. Sylwestra Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland
  2. Division of Time and Length, Central Office of Measures, ul. Elektoralna 2, 00-139 Warsaw, Poland
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Abstract

The popularity and high efficiency of the software-defined radio (SDR) architecture led to its export to other areas of technology, e.g., software-defined networks, vehicles, infrastructure, etc. These devices, as commercials off-the-shelfs (COTS), are the basis for numerous implementations and prototyping of new solutions. SDR allows for easy adoption of existing or development and testing of new communication standards, protocols, etc., also thanks to the support of open and free applications. SDR frequency stability is important in numerous applications, especially in techniques based on frequency measurement. This paper presents the methodology for frequency stability measurements for several popular COTS SDR platforms. Measurement was conducted in two variants, with and without an external rubidium frequency standard (RFS). We generally analyse two groups of frequency stability metrics, i.e., the fundamental parameters and the Allan deviation that provide a comparison of measurement and manufacturer datasheet. These parameters are analysed as a function of time depending on the selected measurement intervals. We determine the distribution of the parameters tested, which is the basis for assessing and classifying SDRs. The results obtained can serve as a basis for modelling the SDR instability phenomenon in future simulation studies, including our own planned work as well as broader research conducted by the scientific community.
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Authors and Affiliations

Kacper Bednarz
1
Jarosław Wojtuń
1
Jan M. Kelner
1
Cezary Ziółkowski
1
Czesław Leśnik
2

  1. Military University of Technology, Faculty of Electronics, Institute of Communications Systems, ul. gen. Sylwestra Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw
  2. Military University of Technology, Faculty of Electronics, Institute of Radioelectronics,ul. gen. Sylwestra Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw
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Abstract

Ex-vivo vessel culture systems that simulate hemodynamic factors enable the measurement of flow and pressure conditions. However, limited efforts have been made to use ex-vivo vessel bioreactors to accurately replicate the hemodynamic factors influencing arterial wall behaviour in an artificial setting. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine mechanical properties of different types of vessels (vascular grafts and human arteries) under various hemodynamic conditions using a specialised ex vivo. In addition, the study compared different vascular grafts with human arteries. To achieve this, a Man-made Circulatory Model was designed and constructed to simulate vessel structure under varying flow conditions. The following vessel types were analysed: ring-enforced ePTFE prostheses, Dacron prostheses, and iliac arteries. The initial conditions for the process were: pulsating flow at five frequencies (60, 75, 90, 105, and 120 l/min) and varying ejection volumes (EV) of homemade fluid per cycle (70, 85, 100, and 115 ml). Our findings suggest that pulsation frequency and ejection volume are key factors that influence the performance of these vascular prostheses. In addition, we found that as pulsation frequency increases, the diameter dilation differences between the iliac arteries and prostheses, as well as between the two types of prostheses, also change (�� < 0.0001). Specifically, the difference in dilation between the prostheses and the iliac arteries increases at higher frequencies, but the pattern of this increase varies between the prosthesis types, suggesting differences in their mechanical behaviour under varying conditions of flow (�� < 0.0001). To sum up, our approach may help guide clinical decisions on prosthesis selection.
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Authors and Affiliations

Andrzej Polanczyk
1
Aleksandra Piechota-Polanczyk
2
Agnieszka W. Piastowska-Ciesielska
2
Ihor Huk
3
Christoph Neumayer
3
Patricia Pia Wadowski
4
Julia Balcer
5
Michal Strzelecki
5

  1. Faculty of Safety Engineering and Civil Protection, Fire University, 01-629 Warsaw, Poland
  2. Medical University of Lodz, Department of Cell Cultures and Genomic Analysis, 90-752 Lodz, Poland
  3. Department of Surgery, Division of Vascular Surgery, Medical University of Vienna,Währinger Gürtel 18-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
  4. Division of Angiology, Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical University of Vienna,Währinger Gürtel 18-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
  5. Institute of Electronics, Lodz University of Technology, 93-590 Lodz, Poland
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Abstract

The paper presents a new method, research setup and the results of the measuring force tests of active and passive scanning probes used in coordinate measuring machines. On the basis of the experimental tests, differences in the characteristics of the pressure of the measuring tip on the measured surface of the active and passive probes are described. These differences concern both the variability of the measuring force and the stabilisation time of the pressure force during the measurement. Test results can be of crucial importance, especially when measuring non-rigid workpieces.
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Authors and Affiliations

Maciej Byszewski
1
Adam Woźniak
2

  1. Multisensor sp. z o.o. 80/82 Grzybowska St., 00-844 Warsaw, Poland
  2. Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Mechatronics, Institute of Metrology and Biomedical Engineering; 8 A. Boboli St., 02-525 Warsaw, Poland

Instructions for authors



Sample article with Author guidelines



Author guidelines



Types of contributions

Metrology and Measurement Systems welcomes submissions of the following article types:

• invited special issue or review papers presenting the current stage of the knowledge within scope of the journal (about 20 edited pages, approximately 3000 characters each),
• research papers reporting high-quality original scientific or technological advancements (max. 12 pages),
• papers based on extended and updated contributions presented at scientific conferences (max. 12 pages),
• short notes, i.e. book reviews, conference reports, short news (max. 2 pages).


Manuscript preparation

General The text of a manuscript should be written in clear and concise English. The camera-ready format – with attached separate files containing illustrations, tables and photographs – is required. A cover letter with clear explanation of scientific novelty of the paper is strongly recommended. Papers based on extended and updated contributions presented at scientific conferences, or strongly related to previous authors’ works, must be accompanied with a cover letter file, which should explain in details changes made in the manuscript in comparison with the original conference paper and highlight the novelty in reference to other authors’ works.
The main text of a manuscript should be printed on an A4 page (with margins of 2.5 cm) using Times New Roman style with a font size of 12 pt; the paragraphs should start with the indentation of 5 mm, and titles should be written in bold. That text can be divided into sections (numbered 1, 2, …), first-order subsections (numbered 1.1., 1.2., …, written in italics), and – if needed – second-order subsections (numbered 1.1.1., 1.1.2., …, written same as first-order subsections). The only acceptable manuscript formats are in Microsoft Word (.doc, .docx).

The Editor encourages the Authors of submitted papers who are not English native speakers, to use a language service checking the language correctness not only with respect to grammar, but also in the way of presentation of research results accepted by renowned publishers, e.g. presented on the website of the European Association of Science Editors. The Editor encourages the Authors of submitted papers who are not English native speakers, to use a language service checking the language correctness not only with respect to grammar, but also in the way of presentation of research results accepted by renowned publishers, e.g. presented on the website of the European Association of Science Editors.


Figures
Figures (illustrations, photographs) and tables, provided in the camera-ready form suitable for reproduction (which may include reduction), should be additionally submitted (one per page), larger than the final size. While preparing figures we encourage to start with defining expected size and minimum font size that fit to all graphics in the manuscript – using the same style in all of your graphics visually improves the article. Final figure formats must be in one of the following: (vectors) .eps, .pdf, .ai or .cdr, and (bitmaps) .bmp, .gif, .tif or .jpg.
As far as plots, block diagrams, schematics etc. are concerned, we suggest to use one of vector formats to improve quality and scalability. Figures in vector formats must be saved using RGB colours and with fully white background (0% K). Hidden layers are unacceptable. Minimum line thickness printed in a single colour is 0.25 pt (0.09 mm), and 1 pt (0.36 mm) when using more colours. Typically we suggest 0.2-0.5 mm but in particular cases the range 0.1–1.0 mm will be accepted. Lines in plots should be distinguished not only by using different colours but also using different line types and markers, if needed.


Equation
All equations must be numbered consecutively throughout the text. Each equation should be preceded and followed by a 6-point spacing. Punctuate equations when they are part of a sentence. Equation numbers should be enclosed in parentheses. Equations should be prepared with the use of MathType or Microsoft Equation editors. The type size in the equation is the same as for the text. To make your equations more compact, you may use the appropriate mathematical symbols or expressions. The symbols used in an equation have to be defined before that equation or immediately after it. Use italics for variables (e.g. i, x, n), physical quantity symbol (e.g. voltage U, temperature T), letter pointers and general function symbols. Do not use italics for constants, indexes, minimum, maximum and trigonometric functions, mathematical operators, differentials, etc. To refer to the equation use “(1)”, not “Eq. (1)” or “equation (1)”, except at the beginning of a sentence where “Equation (1)” should be used. We recommend to use International System of Units SI i.e. metre-kilogram-second system of units. As a decimal separator dot should be used in the entire manuscript (text, figures, tables).


References
The paper has to be clearly positioned in the context of relevant literature in the field of measurements and instrumentation. Note that lack of references from the main field of Metrology and Measurement Systems interest may suggest that the content of manuscript does not exactly correspond to the scope of metrological journals. It may reduce possibility that a proposed paper will be read by audience society. In such a case our Editorial Board may suggest to send the manuscript to a more appropriate journal. Also note that the use of possibly up-to-date references may indicate importance of your work. Table below gives examples of some relevant and renewable journals related to widely understood metrology.


Journal

Publisher

ISSN

Metrologia

IOP Publishing

0026-1394

IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement

IEEE

0018-9456

Measurement

Elsevier

0263-2241

Measurement Science and Technology

IOP Publishing

0957-0233

Metrology and Measurement Systems

PAS

0860-8229

Review of Scientific Instruments

IOP Publishing

0034-6748

IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics

IEEE

1557-9948

IET Science, Measurement & Technology

IET

1751-8822

Journal of Instrumentation

SISSA, IOP Publishing

1748-0221

Measurement Science Review

Walter de Gruyter

1335-8871

IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Magazine

IEEE

1094-6969

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences: Technical Sciences

PAS

2300-1917

Opto-Electronics Review

PAS

1896-3757

IEEE Sensors Journal

IEEE

1558-1748

Sensors

MDPI

1424-8220




References should be inserted in the text in square brackets, i.e. [1]; their list, numbered in citation order, should appear at the end of the manuscript. The format of the references should follow the APA 7th edition formatting style, i.e.: for an journal paper – surname(s) and initial(s) of author(s), year in brackets, title of the paper, full journal name, volume, issue (in brackets) and page numbers. Put all author names unless there are more than 20. Otherwise, after the first 19 authors’ names, use an ellipsis in place of the remaining author names. Then, end with the final author’s name (do not place an ampersand before it).


Submission process
Manuscript should be submitted via the Internet Editorial System (IES) – an online submission and peer review system. In order to submit the manuscript via the IES, the authors (first-time users) must create an author account to obtain a user ID and password required to enter the system. The submission of the manuscript in a single file, i.e. “Article File” containing the complete manuscript (with all figures of high quality and tables embedded in the text), is preferred. All figures have to be uploaded in separate files. The generated PDF file has to be approved. The PDF file has lower quality of the embedded figures to limit its size only.
The submission of a manuscript means that its content has not been published previously, it is not under consideration for publication elsewhere, and that – if accepted – it will not be published elsewhere. The Author hereby grants the Polish Academy of Sciences (the Journal Owner) the license for commercial use of the article according to the Open Access License ( CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which has to be signed before publication. The copyright form is available in the IES.
The Authors are urged to suggest 4 to 5 reviewers in their application (with names, affiliations and addresses) with whom the Editorial Board could co-operate while processing the paper. Proposed reviewers should be experts deeply involved in issues related to the subject matter of the paper and they are intended to come from different universities or research centres.
Each submitted manuscript is subject to a single-blind peer-review procedure, and the publication decision is based on the reviewers’ comments. If necessary, the authors may be invited to revise their manuscripts. On acceptance, manuscripts are subject to editorial amendment to exactly fit the journal style.
An essential criterion for the evaluation of submitted manuscripts is their potential impact on the research field, measured by the number of repeated quotations. Such papers are preferred at the evaluation and publication stages.
Proofs will be sent to the corresponding author by e-mail and should be returned within 48 hours from receipt. The publication in the journal is free of charge. A sample copy of the journal will be sent to the corresponding author free of charge. For colour pages the authors will be charged at the rate of 160 PLN or 80 EUR per page. The payment to the bank account of the main distributor (given in “Subscription Information”) must be completed before the date indicated by the Editorial Office.


Other information
It is possible to include supplementary files related to the article content, such as e.g. developed databases. These files can be then used by other researchers to compare their algorithms using the same input data. For more details about supplementary files please contact the Editorial Board: metrology@wat.edu.pl. The biographical statements, at the very end of the article, are not obligatory, however, they are kindly recommended. Each statement should include the author’s full name and brief personal history focused on areas of research and scientific achievements. The biographical statement may not exceed 100 words and should be written using Times New Roman style with a font size of 8 pt.
The publication of your article is a great achievement but then it needs to be further promoted to make it more visible to the research community. Responsibility for this task lies with the Authors and our Editorial Board. We guarantee free access to the article in the Journals PAN of the Polish Academy of Science, including articles in Early Access form (published just after acceptance decision), indexing in popular and renewable databases (e.g. Thomson Scientific Master Journal List, Elsevier’s Scopus, Google Scholar). Furthermore, selected articles are highlighted on the journal website and are reprinted for promotion at conferences and other events. The Authors can share the final form of the article on various social networks and research-sharing platforms, such as Twitter, Facebook, Linkedin, ResearchGate, Academia.edu, SciProfiles. They are also encouraged to update personal and institutional webpages by adding the title and a link of the article. Feel free also to share your work with your colleagues using any other methods that do not conflict with the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license.
For more detailed description about how to write a paper for the Metrology and Measurement Systems journal please look at the Author guidelines for manuscript preparation. We strongly recommend using this file as a template for manuscript preparation.


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