Life Sciences and Agriculture

Journal of Plant Protection Research

Content

Journal of Plant Protection Research | 2025 | vol. 65 | No 2

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Abstract

In contrast to other plant pathogens, the control of viruses through chemical compounds is not feasible. Consequently, the management of plant viruses has predominantly relied on biotechnological approaches rather than those used for other pathogens. This paper presents a thorough review that takes into account an extensive literature analysis to offer a comprehensive understanding of biotechnological strategies aimed at developing stable engineered virus-resistant plants. Examples of these strategies were highlighted in crops, using as many cases as were available, where these strategies had been used, including cross- -protection, pathogen-derived resistance (PDR), hairpin RNA, artificial small RNAs, and genome editing-based CRISPR/Cas systems. In evaluating the trends over time, we have critically assessed the advantages and disadvantages of each approach, identifying synthetic trans-acting microRNA (syn-tasiRNA) and CRISPR/Cas as the most effective and precise methods exhibiting minimal off-target effects on the plant genome. Furthermore, we have discussed the emerging innovations in non-transgenic resistance strategies such as the application of double-stranded (ds) RNA which hold promise for overcoming the significant challenges associated with the commercialization of engineered resistant plants.
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Authors and Affiliations

Nemat Sokhandan-Bashir
1
ORCID: ORCID
Atiyeh Bahari
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
  2. Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tarbiat Modares, Tehran, Iran
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Abstract

Global agricultural losses due to pests and pathogens are substantial, particularly for wheat, maize, and potatoes. Addressing these challenges necessitates innovative approaches in plant protection, particularly through early detection methods. This article outlines research areas concerning the application of spectral imaging technologies in selective crop protection processes. Recent technological advancements, driven by the development of high-resolution optical sensors and data analysis methods (Pena et al. 2013), have enabled early detection of weeds, plant diseases, and pests in the field. Spectral imaging technologies, particularly hyperspectral imaging, play a pivotal role in early disease detection by capturing detailed spectral data across a wide range of wavelengths. This technology enables the detection of subtle physiological changes in plants long before visible symptoms occur. Hyperspectral imaging has proven effective in identifying diseases such as Fusarium head blight in wheat, allowing for timely interventions and potentially reducing yield losses. The integration of hyperspectral imaging with remote sensing technologies, including unmanned aerial vehicles and ground-based sensors, as well as artificial intelligence represents a significant advancement in precision agriculture. This multidisciplinary approach aims to enhance crop protection while minimizing environmental impacts. The article also explores the advantages and limitations of these technologies and strategies for reducing the reliance on chemical plant protection methods in agricultural production. It is underlined, that future research should focus on optimizing these technologies, addressing cost barriers, and exploring UAV-based applications for precision spraying and monitoring.
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Authors and Affiliations

Wiesław Golka
1
ORCID: ORCID
Magdalena Szechyńska-Hebda
2
ORCID: ORCID
Jolanta Kowalska
3
ORCID: ORCID
Adrian Golka
1
Robert Grolik
4
ORCID: ORCID
Magdalena Jakubowska
5
ORCID: ORCID
Mateusz Góra
4
Aleksander Bomberski
6
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Actuaro Ltd, Warsaw, Poland
  2. Plant Biology, W. Szafer Institute of Botany Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
  3. Department of Organic Agriculture and Environmental Protection, Institute of Plant Protection – NIR, Poznań, Poland
  4. 4Robot Ltd., Kęty, Poland
  5. Method of Pests Forecasting, Institute of Plant Protection – NIR, Poznań, Poland
  6. Agricultural Advisory Centre in Brwinów, WSG University Bydgoszcz, Warsaw, Poland
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Abstract

Plant disease forecasting plays a crucial role in managing outbreaks and mitigating economic and health impacts, thereby contributing significantly to plant protection efforts. This proactive approach assesses the likelihood of disease outbreaks and increases in disease intensity, enabling timely intervention and resource optimization. However, climate change exacerbates this challenge by altering pathogen evolution and host-pathogen interactions, fostering the emergence of new pathogenic strains, shifting pathogen ranges, and expanding the geographic spread of plant diseases. In developing countries, these changes are compounded by limited resources and inadequate infrastructure, creating significant challenges for forecasting systems and plant protection efforts. The primary objective of this review was to assess the impact of climate change on plant disease forecasting systems, with a focus on biotic and abiotic stresses such as temperature changes, altered precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events. A systematic literature review was conducted using databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, selecting peer-reviewed studies published between 2020 and 2024. Key data on research objectives, methodologies, results, and implications were extracted and synthesized, demonstrating how climateinduced stresses affect components of the disease tetrahedron, including host susceptibility, pathogen virulence, environmental conditions, and vector dynamics. The findings reveal that climate change significantly affects forecasting systems and plant protection strategies, emphasizing the need for reliable, and cost-effective forecasting models adaptable to diverse and evolving climate conditions, especially in resource-constrained settings. This review underscores the importance of developing innovative and context-specific strategies to enhance forecasting capabilities and plant protection. Future research should focus on advancing forecasting technologies, addressing data gaps, and adapting systems to evolving climate conditions to better safeguard food security and environmental sustainability.
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Authors and Affiliations

Agatha Amnaay Aloyce
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Sustainable Agriculture, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Tengeru, Arusha, Tanzania
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Abstract

Honeybees in crops are exposed to active ingredients of pesticides (plant protection proucts – PPPs) and adjuvants used in agriculture. The aim of this research was to estimate the effect of a sublethal dose of a pyrethroid insecticide (deltamethrin; Deltam), a plant protection product – adjuvant (alkylbenzene sulphonic acid sodium salt; Superam 10 AL), and a co-formulated mixture of those substances on the honeybee temperature preference, CO2 emission, and expression of detoxification-related genes (CYP9Q1, CYP9Q2, CYP9Q3). When the measurement results were analyzed using outcome-matched statistical tests such as the Wilcoxon test, the conclusion, was reached that Deltam, Superam 10 AL and the mixture of the two preparations significantly statistically differentiated the bees’ thermal environment preference (a decrease in the preferred temperature by 0, 4, 0.9 and 0.5°C, respectively), altered CO2 levels (an increase by 4.2% and a decrease by 10% and 13.5%, respectively) and statistically significantly increased the levels of CYP9Q1, CYP9Q2 and CYP9Q3 transcripts in the insects’ head, but not in their thorax. The results indicate that the condition of honeybees can be affected by the finished formulation of the plant protection product, its adjuvant, and the mixture of both acting together, with a direction of change varying according to the studied parameters.
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Authors and Affiliations

Bartosz Piechowicz
1 2
ORCID: ORCID
Sara Łaś
3
Małgorzata Łaś
1
Klaudia Łuc
3
Lech Zaręba
4
ORCID: ORCID
Damian Kobylarz
3 5
Aleksandra Kuliga
3 6
ORCID: ORCID
Przemysław Grodzicki
7
Andrzej Zienkiewicz
7
Maria Romerowicz-Misielak
2 3

  1. Institute of Biology, College of Natural Sciences, University of Rzeszow, Rzeszów, Poland
  2. Interdisciplinary Center for Preclinical and Clinical Research, University of Rzeszow, Rzeszów, Poland
  3. Institute of Biotechnology, College of Natural Sciences, University of Rzeszow, Rzeszów, Poland
  4. Interdisciplinary Centre for Computational Modelling, College of Natural Sciences, University of Rzeszow, Rzeszów, Poland
  5. Department of Regulatory and Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Medical Expertises, Łódź, Poland
  6. Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research, Polish Academy of Science, Olsztyn, Poland
  7. Department of Animal Physiology and Neurobiology, Faculty of Biological and Veterinary Sciences, N. Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland
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Abstract

The European market for plant protection products (PPPs) faces significant challenges related to counterfeit and substandard PPPs, posing threats to sustainable agriculture and food safety. This study explored the application of chemometric methods based on physical, chemical, and technical parameters, as well as data obtained by high-performance liquid chromatography with a diode array detector (HPLC-DAD) and headspace gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (HS-GC/MS), to verify the authenticity of PPPs containing trinexapac-ethyl. A total of 44 formulations were analyzed, including authentic samples and substandard PPPs obtained from various retail points and manufacturers. The developed analytical methods demonstrated robustness in determining physicochemical parameters and generating chromatographic profiles distinguishing between genuine and non-genuine products. Chemometric tools such as principal component analysis (PCA), hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA), and Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy (SIMCA) facilitated data interpretation, revealing distinct clusters of samples based on their chemical fingerprints. SIMCA models exhibited their potential for routine quality control assessments. Overall, integrating advanced analytical techniques and chemometrics offers a promising strategy to safeguard the integrity of PPPs, enhance regulatory compliance, and mitigate the risks associated with counterfeit products in the European agricultural market. This approach supports sustainable agricultural practices by ensuring product authenticity and safety, thereby fostering consumer trust and regulatory adherence. In the context of increasing global demand for agricultural products, effective verification of PPPs authenticity becomes a crucial element in ensuring food security, human health, and environmental protection.
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Authors and Affiliations

Patrycja Marczewska
1
ORCID: ORCID
Joanna Rolnik
1
ORCID: ORCID
Tomasz Stobiecki
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Pesticide Quality Testing Laboratory, Institute of Plant Protection – National Research Institute, Sosnicowice Branch, Sosnicowice, Poland
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Abstract

Tebuconazole + fluopyram is a new binary mixture fungicide product that is widely used to control many plant fungal pathogens and nematodes in several agricultural crops worldwide, including Egypt. However, there is a lack of information about their toxicological effects on honeybees (Apis mellifera L.). In the current study, the lethal and sub-lethal toxic effects of mixture tebuconazole + fluopyram were examined on A. mellifera workers. Tebuconazole + fluopyram exhibited low acute toxicity to A. mellifera foragers (the 96-h LC50 value was 1.389 mg a.i. ml–1). Sub-lethal effects of tebuconazole + fluopyram on survival, body weight, food consumption and antioxidant defenses of A. mellifera were determined by chronic oral exposure of A. mellifera workers to sugar syrup which contained two sublethal concentrations of the fungicide, 0.139 mg ml–1 (1/10 of 96-h LC50) and 0.278 mg ml–1 (1/5 of 96-h LC50), along with clear sugar syrup as a control for 18 days. Honeybees exposed to both sublethal concentrations of tebuconazole + fluopyram showed a significant decrease in the bees’ survivability and dry body weight. Sugar syrup and pollen consumption by the exposed A. mellifera were relatively less than by the controls. Tebuconazole + fluopyram also induced disruptions in the enzymatic antioxidant and detoxification defense systems in bees, indicating the presence of oxidative stress. Fungicide exposure elicited a significant depletion in catalase and superoxide dismutase activities and a significant elevation in glutathione and malondialdehyde levels in bees, indicating lipid peroxidation. This is the first study indicating the harmful impacts of tebuconazole + fluopyram on honeybee health.

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Authors and Affiliations

Neama S. Saeed
1
Sayed A. Ahmed
1
Zeinab H. Ahmed
2
Abdulraouf M. Amro
2 3
ORCID: ORCID
Ibrahim A. Mohamed
1

  1. Plant Protection Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
  2. Bee Research Department, Plant Protection Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Dokki, Egypt
  3. Department of Apiculture Research, Plant Protection Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Giza, Egypt
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Abstract

Sugar beet leaves with dark brown to blackish, necrotic lesions were found in a grower’s field in Casselton, North Dakota, USA in August 2021. Morphological features of the isolates obtained in growth media from the diseased samples were observed and documented. The pathogenicity of the randomly selected isolates developed identical disease symptoms on the inoculated leaves. Molecular characterization of the isolates was conducted by identifying homologies with sequences of the internal transcribed spacer, the largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (rpb2), β-tubulin (β-tub), calmodulin (CaM), and plasma membrane ATPase (Pma1) genes followed by multilocus phylogenic analyses. Based on morphological characteristics, pathogenicity, and molecular analyses, the causal organism was identified as Colletotrichum spaethianum. This is the first report of C. spaethianum causing leaf spot on sugar beet in North Dakota, USA. The report will help growers design an effective disease management for a novel pathogen in sugar beet in the Red River Valley of Minnesota and North Dakota, USA.

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Authors and Affiliations

M.Z.R. Bhuiyan Ziaur
1
ORCID: ORCID
Dilip Kumar Lakshman
2
Adnan Ismaiel
3
ORCID: ORCID
Prashanta Bhui
4
Mohamed Khan
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Plant Pathology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, United States
  2. Molecular Plant Pathology Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Beltsville, United States
  3. Environmental Microbial & Food Safety Lab, USDA-ARS, Beltsville, United States
  4. Plant Pathology, Palli Siksha Bhavana, Visva Bharati University, College Street, Sriniketan, India
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Abstract

Ground cover plants in orchards can effectively improve soil quality. One factor determin­ing soil health is the presence of fauna, including mesofauna, which play a crucial role in soil ecosystems. However, the relationship between ground cover and Collembola assemblages in orchards remains underexplored. This study investigated how different ground cover plants sown in rows of apple trees influence the abundance and diversity of Collembola. Conducted at the Research Station of Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Poland, the experiment utilized three cover species: Tagetes patula, Festuca ovina, and Agrostis capillaris, with fallow plots serving as control samples. Soil samples were collected over 2 years (2015–2016) to assess springtails richness and species composition. Results indicated that springtails were significantly more abundant in soils managed with ground cover plants than in conventionally managed fallow stands. Notably, the highest mean Collembola numbers were recorded in strips planted with T. patula and F. ovina. The springtail communities were primarily dominant in each of the treatments by two eudaphic species, Mesaphorura macrochaeta and Hypogastrura assimilis. These findings underscore the importance of cover crops in sustainable agriculture by reducing herbicide reliance, enhancing soil aeration, improving soil fertility through organic matter, and fostering biodiversity of soil biota.

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Authors and Affiliations

Olena Ewa Niszczak
1
ORCID: ORCID
Jacek Twardowski
1
ORCID: ORCID
Iwona Gruss
1
ORCID: ORCID
Kamila Twardowska
1
ORCID: ORCID
Maria Licznar-Małańczuk
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Department of Plant Protection, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
  2. Department of Horticulture, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
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Abstract

Cannabis aphid Phorodon (Diphorodon) cannabis Passerini 1860 is an economically impor­tant pest of oil hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) and is controlled by insecticides. Oil hemp crops are treated with herbicides, which are non-target pesticides for aphids but may also affect aphid populations. Such ecological implications of plant protection products are rarely in­vestigated. The aim of the present research was to better understand plant ‒ aphid ‒ her­bicide interactions, specifically, changes of fatty acids (FAs) in leaves, caused by cannabis aphids and a common herbicide used in hemp fields.

Of 21 FAs detected in hemp leaves, aphid feeding significantly increased the amounts of myristic and oleic acids and decreased the content of α-linolenic acid. This effect was found when aphids fed on hemp plants and especially when plants were treated with an herbicide containing quizalofop-P-tefuryl. This compound on its own did not affect the FA composi­tion. In spite of the extremely high increase of myristic acid (7- to 9-fold, depending on the experiment variant), which could cause the repellent effect in hemp plants, the decreased amount of α-linolenic acid, the precursor of jasmonic acid may have helped aphids to ma­nipulate the jasmonate signaling pathway involved in plant defense to herbivory enabling their continued feeding on hemp. This study revealed the importance of FAs in plant de­fense as well as the side effects of non-target plant protection products. Future pest man­agement should take into account the complex interactions between crop plants, their pests and non-target effects of chemicals used in real field situations.

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Authors and Affiliations

Roma Durak
1
Beata Borowiak-Sobkowiak
2
ORCID: ORCID
Ewa Szpyrka
3
ORCID: ORCID
Tomasz Durak
1
ORCID: ORCID
Beata Ciak
1
ORCID: ORCID
Małgorzata Jedryczka
4
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Faculty of Biology and Nature Protection, University of Rzeszów, Rzeszów, Poland
  2. Department of Entomology and Environmental Protection, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Poznań, Poland
  3. Faculty of Biotechnology, Collegium Medicum, Rzeszów, Poland
  4. Department of Pathogen Genetics and Plant Resistance, Institute of Plant Genetics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poznań, Poland
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Abstract

Plasmodiophora brassicae is an obligate parasite and a natural soil inhabitant that causes clubroot, a disease with significant economic impact in plants of the Brassicaceae family. This pathology is conditioned by plant/host interactions, edaphoclimatic variables, and mechanisms of inoculum dispersal. However, the epidemiology of this pathogen is not well understood, thereby limiting its incorporation into integrated disease management strategies (IDM). The objective of this work was to adjust a mesoscale risk and prognostic model of P. brassicae based on edaphoclimatic factors and potential dispersal mechanisms in brassica-producing areas in Colombia. The presence and inoculum density of the pathogen were determined by visual inspection of symptoms and quantification by qPCR of soil samples in a total of 127 plots located in regions with the highest production of species from the Brassicaceae family. In addition, an edaphoclimatic characterization was carried out based on field data and secondary information by web scraping using freely available databases. The forecast models were determined by fitting a Generalized Linear Model (GLM) using the logit and inverse link functions for binomial and gamma distributions, respectively. The meso- and macroscale spatial risk model was developed under point pattern approaches (Kernel density model and ecological niche model (ENM). The different epidemiological analysis approaches used suggest that P. brassicae presents a high risk in areas with host presence and conducive edaphoclimatic characteristics, indicating the need to carry out epidemiological surveillance, reduce the dispersion of infested soil, and implement P. brassicae exclusion methods.

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Authors and Affiliations

Andres F. Quintero-Mercado
1 2
ORCID: ORCID
Juan Camilo Garcia-Peña
2 3
ORCID: ORCID
Andrea Botero-Ramirez
4
ORCID: ORCID
Celsa Garcia
2
Joaquín Guillermo Ramírez-Gil
2 3

  1. Universidad del Magdalena, Facultad de Ingeniería, Santa Marta, Colombia
  2. Departamento de Agronomía, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Bogotá, 111321, Bogotá, Colombia
  3. Laboratorio de Agrocomputación y Análisis epidemiológico, Center of Excellence in Scientific Computing, Departamento de Agronomía, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, sede Bogotá, Colombia
  4. Plant Growth Facility Lead, Faculty of Agricultural, Life, and Environmental Sciences, 5-17 Ag/Forestry Building University of Alberta, Canada
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Abstract

Potato (Solanum tuberosum) is a globally important crop, but its production is often threatened by pectinolytic bacteria of genus Pectobacterium and Dickeya, including Pectobacte­rium brasiliense (Pcb), and Dickeya solani (Ds), which cause two diseases, soft rot of potato tubers and blackleg of potato plants. These pathogens cause a reduction of potato yield, and significant yield losses due to tuber rot in storage. Currently, there are no effective chemical solutions to control these bacterial pathogens. This study aimed to investigate the effect of tuber greening, a process that significantly increases the content of glycoalkaloids (GAs), on the susceptibility of the potato cultivar Tajfun to infection by Pcb and Ds. Tubers were exposed to continuous artificial light for 2 weeks to induce greening. Control tubers were kept in the dark under the same environmental conditions. Then, tubers were infiltrated with Pcb and Ds under low pressure to ensure efficient bacterial penetration and planted in pots under controlled conditions. After 3 weeks phenotypic symptoms of bacterial in­fection such as wilting, overall plant vitality and stem necrosis were determined. Results showed a significant reduction in Ds infection in greened tubers compared to non-greened controls, supporting the hypothesis that greening which increases GAs levels, enhances resistance to bacterial pathogens. The response to Pcb was more variable, with some plants grown from greened tubers still exhibiting high levels of infection, suggesting that while greening may reduce susceptibility, the greater aggressiveness of Pcb may limit the pro­tective effects of greening. In conclusion, the present study showed that tuber greening could be an effective non-chemical method for controlling blackleg, particularly against Ds. However, the variable response to Pcb indicates that additional strategies are needed. Future research should focus on integrating GAs-based defenses with potato cultivars that exhibit stronger resistance to pectinolytic bacteria for improved management of blackleg.

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Authors and Affiliations

Anna Maria Grupa-Urbańska
1
ORCID: ORCID
Renata Lebecka
1
ORCID: ORCID
Dorota Sołtys-Kalina
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute – National Research Institute in Radzików, Młochów Division, Młochów, Pola
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Abstract

The aim of this study was the detection and molecular characterization of newly identified turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) isolates infecting rhubarb in Poland. The presence of the virus in rhubarb was confirmed by ELISA and RT-PCR techniques. The specificity of the obtained products was verified by Sanger sequencing. Two sequences (1,077 nt) of the TuMV coat protein gene and the 3’-terminal non-coding region were uploaded to the Genbank database (access no. MG882689 and MG882690). The phylogenetic analysis was performed based on the coat protein gene sequences of two new Polish isolates from rhubarb and 43 other TuMV sequences retrieved from the Genbank. The isolates studied were grouped with an isolate from rhubarb (AB701709) found in the UK (98% nucleotide identity). It is the first phylogenetic analysis of TuMV isolates infecting rhubarb in Poland.
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Authors and Affiliations

Beata Komorowska
1
ORCID: ORCID
Anna Jarecka-Boncela
1
ORCID: ORCID
Magdalena Ptaszek
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Plant Protection, The National Institute of Horticultural Research, Skierniewice, Poland

Instructions for authors

Instructions for Authors

Manuscripts published in JPPR are free of charge. Only colour figures and photos are payed 61.5 € per one colour page JPPR publishes original research papers, short communications, critical reviews, and book reviews covering all areas of modern plant protection. Subjects include phytopathological virology, bacteriology, mycology and applied nematology and entomology as well as topics on protecting crop plants and stocks of crop products against diseases, viruses, weeds, etc. Submitted manuscripts should provide new facts or confirmatory data. All manuscripts should be written in high-quality English. Non-English native authors should seek appropriate help from English-writing professionals before submission. The manuscript should be submitted only via the JPPR Editorial System (http://www.editorialsystem.com/jppr). The authors must also remember to upload a scan of a completed License to Publish (point 4 and a handwritten signature are of particular importance). ALP form is available at the Editorial System. The day the manuscript reaches the editors for the first time is given upon publication as the date ‘received’ and the day the version, corrected by the authors is accepted by the reviewers, is given as the date ‘revised’. All papers are available free of charge at the Journal’s webpage (www.plantprotection.pl). However, colour figures and photos cost 61.5 € per one colour page.

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All text should be written in a concise and integrated way, by focusing on major points, findings, breakthrough or discoveries, and their broad significance. All running text should be in Times New Roman 12, 1.5 spacing with all margins 2.5 cm on all sides.

Original article

The original research articles should contain the following sections: Title – the title should be unambiguous, understandable to specialists in other fields, and must reflect the contents of the paper. No abbreviations may be used in the title. Name(s) of author(s) with affiliations footnoted added only to the system, not visible in the manuscript (Double Blind Reviews). The names of the authors should be given in the following order: first name, second name initial, surname. Affiliations should contain: name of institution, faculty, department, street, city with zip code, and country. Abstract – information given in the title does not need to be repeated in the abstract. The abstract should be no longer than 300 words. It must contain the aim of the study, methods, results and conclusions. If used, abbreviations should be limited and must be explained when first used. Keywords – a maximum of 6, should cover the most specific terms found in the paper. They should describe the subject and results and must differ from words used in the title. Introduction – a brief review of relevant research (with references to the most important and recent publications) should lead to the clear formulation of the working hypothesis and aim of the study. It is recommended to indicate what is novel and important in the study. Materials and Methods – in this section the description of experimental procedures should be sufficient to allow replication. Organisms must be identified by scientific name, including authors. The International System of Units (SI) and their abbreviations should be used. Methods of statistical processing, including the software used, should also be listed in this section. Results – should be presented clearly and concisely without deducting and theori sing. Graphs should be preferred over tables to express quantitative data. Discussion – should contain an interpretation of the results ( without unnecessary repetition) and explain the influence of experimental factors or methods. It should describe how the results and their interpretation relate to the scientific hypothesis and/or aim of the study. The discussion should take into account the current state of knowledge and up-to-date literature. It should highlight the significance and novelty of the paper. It may also point to the next steps that will lead to a better understanding of the matters in question. Acknowledgements – of people, grants, funds, etc. should be placed in a separate section before the reference list. The names of funding organizations should be written in full. References In the text, papers with more than two authors should be cited by the last name of the first author, followed by et al. (et al. in italics), a space, and the year of publication (example: Smith et al. 2012). If the cited manuscript has two authors, the citation should include both last names, a space, and the publication year (example: Marconi and Johnston 2006). In the Reference section, a maximum of ten authors of the cited paper may be given. All references cited in the text must be listed in the Reference section alphabetically by the last names of the author(s) and then chronologically. The year of publication follows the authors’ names. All titles of the cited articles should be given in English. Please limit the citation of papers published in languages other than English. If necessary translate the title into English and provide information concerning the original language in brackets (e.g. in Spanish). The list of references should only include works from the last ten years that have had the greatest impact on the subject. Older references can be cited only if they are important for manuscript content. The full name of periodicals should be given. If possible, the DOI number should be added at the end of each reference. The following system for arranging references should be used: Journal articles Jorjani M., Heydari A., Zamanizadeh H.R., Rezaee S., Naraghi L., Zamzami P. 2012. Controlling sugar beet mortality disease by application of new bioformulations. Journal of Plant Protection Research 52 (3): 303-307. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/v10045-012-0049-9 Online articles Turner E., Jacobson D.J., Taylor J.W. 2011. Genetic architecture of a reinforced, postmating, reproductive isolation barrier between Neurospora species indicates evolution via natural selection. PLoS Genetics 7 (8): e1002204. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1002204 Books Bancrof J.D., Stevens A. 1996. Theory and Practice of Histological Techniques. 4th ed. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, UK, 776 pp. Book chapters Pradhan S.K. 2000. Integrated pest management. p. 463-469. In: "IPM System in Agriculture. Cash Crop" (R.K. Upadhyaya, K.G. Mukerji, O.P. Dubey, eds.). Aditya Books Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, India, 710 pp. Online documents Cartwright J. 2007. Big stars have weather too. IOP Publishing PhysicsWeb. Available on: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1002204

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Tables and figures should be uploaded as separated files at the submission stage. Their place in the manuscript should be clearly indicated by authors. Colour figures are accepted at no charge for the electronic version. In the hardcopy version of the journal, colour figures cost (65,5 € per one colour page). When attaching files please indicate if you want colour only in the online version or in both the online and the hardcopy. Photographs and RGB bitmaps should be provided in JPG or TIFF file format. They must have no less than 300 dpi resolution. The text column should be 8 cm wide and they must be at least 1000 pixels wide. Please send original (not resized) photograph(s), straight from a digital camera, without any text descriptions on the photo. Bitmaps combined with text object descriptions should be provided in MS Word or MS Powerpoint format. Text objects using Arial font-face should be editable (changing font-face or font size). Drawings should be provided in MS Word, MS Powerpoint, CorelDRAW or EPS file format and stored with original data file. Text objects using Arial font-face should be editable (changing font-face or font size). Charts (MS Excel graphs) should be provided in MS Excel file format, and stored with original MS Excel data file without captions but with the number of the figure attached. Please do not use bitmap fills for bar charts. Use colour fills only if necessary. Captions and legends should be added at the end of the text, referred to as "Fig." and numbered consecutively throughout the paper.

Rapid communications

Rapid communications should present brief observations which do not warrant the length of a full paper. However, they must present completed studies and follow the same scientific standards as original articles. Rapid communications should contain the following sections: Title Abstract - less than 300 words Key words - maximum 6 Text body Acknowledgements References The length of such submissions is limited to 1500 words for the text, one table, and one figure.

Reviews

Review articles are invited by the editors.Unsolicited reviews are also considered. The length is limited to 5000 words with no limitations on figures and tables and a maximum of 150 references. Mini-Review articles should be dedicated to "hot" topics and limited to 3000 words and a maximum two figures, two tables and 20 references.

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